UC-NRLF 


75D 


r 


REESE  LIBRARY 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 


THE 

PRINCIPLES    OF    ORNAMENT 


THE 

PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


BY 

JAMES    WARD 

HEAD-MASTER   OF   THE   IUACCLE9FIELD  SCHOOL   OF    ART 


EDITED    BY 

GEORGE  AITCHISON,  A.R.A. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ARCHITECTURE   AT    THE    ROYAL    ACADEMY   OF    ARTS 


NEW  AND  ENLARGED  EDITION 


(UNIVERSITY) 

V.  OF  J 


NEW   YORK 

CHARLES    SCRIBNER'S    SONS 
r53— J57   FIFTH   AVENUE 

1896 


RICHARD  CLAY  &  SONS,  LIMITED, 
LONDON  &  BUNGAY. 


EDITOR'S   PREFACE 

As  Examiner  on  the  Principles  of  Ornament  at 
the  Science  and  Art  Department,  I  found  there  was 
no  good  English  text-book  on  the  subject,  so  the 
necessary  information  could  only  be  picked  up  by 
extensive  reading  and  independent  observation,  and 
these  are  not  to  be  expected  from  young  students. 
Certain  parts  of  the  subject  have  been  admirably 
treated  by  Moody  in  his  Lectures  and  Lessons  on 
Art, — in  fact  I  know  of  no  book  where  the  subjects 
treated  show  such  keen  observation  and  profound 
knowledge,  but  they  are  embedded  in  lectures  on 
other  subjects,  and  the  book  has  no  index.  Having 
written  the  original  Syllabus  on  the  Principles  of 
Ornament,  I  was  disposed  to  write  a  text-book,  had 
not  other  avocations  prevented  me.  Last  year  Mr. 
Ward's  book  on  The  Elementary  Principles  of 
Ornament  was  sent  me,  and  though  it  was  a  useful 
book  and  had  a  glossary,  it  contained  some  doubtful 
passages,  and  being  printed  from  a  course  of  lectures 
it  was  a  little  too  discursive.  In  writing  the  new 
Syllabus  this  year  I  could  not  recommend  it  for  a 
text-book  as  it  stood,  but  as  I  thought  it  would  be 
unfair  to  Mr.  Ward  for  me  to  write  a  text-book  after 


viii  EDITOR'S   PREFACE 

the  trouble  he  had  taken,  I  consented  to  edit  a  new 
edition.  I  may  here  say  that  I  have  left  Mr.  Ward's 
musical  comparisons  as  I  found  them,  and  have  not 
revised  his  views  on  Ogham,  and  Runic,  nor  those  on 
the  symbolic  ornament  of  the  Egyptians,  Assyrians, 
Siamese,  Burmese,  Japanese,  Hebrews,  Buddhists,  and 
Brahmins. 

GEORGE  AITCHISON. 


x># 

1  'HE 

(UNIVERSITY, 
Va 


EDITOR'S    PREFACE 

TO   THE  SECOND   EDITION 

I  HAVE  carefully  revised  the  book  without  altering 
its  substance.  I  have  also  added  an  Appendix 
containing  a  few  remarks  on  the  Orders  of  Architec- 
ture, with  illustrations  of  some  of  the  best  classical 
examples ;  believing  that  this  would  be  useful,  not 
only  to  carvers  and  modellers  who  have  to  execute 
enrichments  on  Architecture,  but  to  all  students. 

The  ornamented  parts  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Orders,  figure  sculpture  apart,  show  how  two  cognate 
nations,  each  with  transcendent  abilities  but  of  an 
entirely  different  range,  abstracted  the  beauties  of 
plants,  and  conferred  them  on  stone  and  marble 
to  emphasize  and  adorn  the  rigid  forms  of  Archi- 
tecture ;  how  the  Greeks  seized  on  the  exquisite 
beauties  of  flowers,  and  adapted  them,  so  as  to 
retain  the  greatest  purity  of  form,  and  used  them  in 
the  most  sparing  way ;  while  the  Romans,  or  Greeks 
working  under  Roman  dictation,  used  them  lavishly 
to  procure  magnificence ;  and  eventually  were  so 
prodigal  with  their  ornament  as  to  defeat  the  end  in 
view,  as  little  of  the  architecture  was  left  plain  ;  to 

act   as   a   foil   to   the   enrichment;  while    from    the 

* 


x      EDITOR'S    PREFACE   TO    SECOND   EDITION 

quantity  employed  no  time  could  be  spared  to  perfect 
the  ornament. 

The  power  of  abstracting  and  applying  the  beauties 
of  floral  form  seems  now  to  be  entirely  lost.  The 
great  art  of  the  present  day  seems  to  consist  in  copy- 
ing nature  as  exactly  as  it  can  be  copied  in  hard 
materials  to  make  a  colourable  imitation ;  but  in 
such  a  way  that  its  highest  beauties  are  lost. 

Mr.  Ward  has  added  several  illustrations  which 
his  experience  shows  him  will  be  useful  to  students, 
and  he  has  added  an  Appendix  on  the  construction  of 
some  geometrical  figures,  and  the  methods  of  drawing 
conic  sections  and  spirals. 

GEORGE  AITCHISON. 


AUTHOR'S     PREFACE 

IN  the  preface  to  the  first  edition  of  this  book,  I 
stated  that  the  contents  consisted  of  a  series  of  class 
lectures  given  to  art  students.  These  lectures  were 
not  originally  intended  for  publication.  I  was,  how- 
ever, strongly  advised  to  publish  them,  and  did  SG 
without  any  attempt 'at  revision,  under  the  title 
of  Elementary  Principles  of  Ornament.  Although 
there  are  many  excellent  text-books  on  ornament 
published  at  the  present  time,  there  are  none  that 
exclusively  treat  of  the  theory,  or  what  is  known  as 
the  "principles  of  ornament";  this  belief  is  shared 
with  me  by  many  of  the  principal  art  masters  in  the 
country,  and  by  many  gentlemen  whose  names  stand 
high  in  the  list  of  decorative  artists,  judging  from  the 
numerous  letters  and  opinions  I  received  after  the 
publication  of  the  first  edition. 

I  was  gratified  to  find  that  the  book  received  a 
favourable  recognition  from  the  authorities  of  the 
Science  and  Art  Department. 

The  present  edition  has  been  edited  and  revised  by 
Professor  Aitchison,  A.R.A.,  the  Government  Exam- 
iner in  the  subject  and  Professor  of  Architecture  at 
the  Royal  Academy.  To  that  gentleman  I  here 


xii  AUTHOR'S   PREFACE 

desire  to  record  my  grateful  thanks  for  his  invaluable 
services  in  connection  with  the  book,  and,  I  am  sure 
I  shall  be  right  if  I  add,  the  thanks  of  all  students  in 
ornamental  art.  Professor  Aitchison  has  also  written 
the  new  introductory  chapter. 

I  wish  here  also  to  express  my  best  thanks  to  John 
Vinycomb,  Esq.,  F.R. S.A.I.,  for  his  valuable  sugges- 
tions to  me  in  the  chapter  on  symbolic  ornament. 

The  illustrations  must  only  be  accepted  as  black- 
board diagrams,  they  are  merely  intended  as  aids  in 
explanation  of  the  text ;  more  illustrations  have  been 
added  to  this  edition,  a  few  that  appeared  in  the 
former  edition  have  been  left  out. 

J.  WARD. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER.    BY  THE  EDITOR  i 


CHAPTER   I 

Definition  of  Ornament — Methods  of  Expression — Out- 
lined, Flat,  Coloured,  Relieved,  and  Shaded  Ornament 
— Definition  of  Arabesques  19 

CHAPTER   II 

Elementary  forms  used  in  Ornament — Straight  and 
Curved  line  Ornament — The  Greek  Honeysuckle, 
&c.  .  26 


CHAPTER   III 

The  Laws  of  Composition  in  Ornament  enumerated  and 

explained 40 


CHAPTER   IV 

The  Shapes  and  Decoration  of  Mouldings — Fluted  and 
Reeded  Ornament — Treatment  of  Floors,  Walls,  and 
Ceilings — Relief  Work  on  Ceilings  50 


xiv  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  V 

PAGE 

Outline  and  Division  of  Surfaces — Proportion  of  Rect- 
angular Surfaces — Spacing  and  Decoration  of  Cir- 
cular and  Curved  Objects — Decoration  of  Various 
Shapes,  of  Planes  and  of  Large  Flat  Surfaces — 
Abuses  of  Purely  Natural  Forms  applied  to  Articles 
of  Use — Application  of  Ornament  and  Materials  in 
Wall  Decoration 68 

CHAPTER  VI 
The  Six  Classes  or  Great  Divisions  of  Ornament 80 

CHAPTER  VII 

The  Application  of  Plants  in  Ornament — Plants  Used 
in  Historic  Ornament — The  Acanthus — Its  Use  by 
the  Ancients  in  Capitals,  Candelabra,  and  on  Flat 
Surfaces — Modern  Use  and  Treatment  of  the  Acan- 
thus... ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  108 

CHAPTER  VIII 
The  Symbolic  and  Mnemonic  Classes  of  Ornament        ...     130 

CHAPTER   IX 

Raphael's  Arabesques — Christian  Symbolism — Compari- 
son of  Symbolic  and  Esthetic  Ornament  138 

APPENDIX  ON  THE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE        ...     145 

A  CHAPTER  ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF  FIGURES  AND 

CURVES  IN  PRACTICAL  PLANE  GEOMETRY 176 

GLOSSARY         199 


€,^3t    L I ^i/4/Jju^x^ 
OF  THE  ^v 

IVERSITT) 


INDEX   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGS. 
Acanthus  leaf  (Greek),  from  a  capital  of  the  Tower  of 

the  Winds...  151 

Acanthus  leaf  (Greek),  with  flowers  from  a  capital  of 

the jChoragic  Monument  of  Lysikrates  ...  152 

Acanthus  (Mollis),  from  nature  1 49 

Acanthus  (Spinosus),  from  nature        150 

Acanthus,  soft-leaved,  from  the  soffit  of  the  architrave 

at  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Stator 155 

Acanthus  used  on  candelabra  and  small  pillars         ...  156,158 
Acanthus,  modern  varieties  of  sea-weed  and  poppy- 
leaved  Acanthus       159 

Acanthus,  olive-leaf  variety,  from  a  Roman  capital     ...  153 
Acanthus,  olive-leaf  variety,  from  a  capital  of  Mars 

Ultor 154,187 

Arrangement  of  a  wall-paper  pattern 84 

Arrangements    for    wall-paper  or  room   decoration, 

improper        80-83 

Astragal  or  bead  moulding,  with  its  ornament          ...       77 

Bead  and  reel        78 

Book-cover  (German),  sixteenth  century        124 

Border,  upright  lily,  Greco-Roman      120 

Borders,  Greek 113-117 

Borders  of  Medallions  in  enamelled  earthenware  by 

Luca  Delia  Robbia 144 

Borders,  Persian 118,  119 

Borders  derived  from  the  laurel  140,141 

Bracts  used  for  "  clothing"  stems  in  Scrolls,  &c.      ...  137,  157 


xvi  INDEX   Or   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGS. 

Capital,  Greek  Doric       175 

Capital,  Greek  Ionic 176-179 

Capital,  Greek  Corinthian          180,181 

Capital,  Roman  Tuscan 182 

Capital,  Roman  Doric 183 

Capital,  Roman  Ionic     ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  184 

Capital,  Roman  Corinthian        185,  187 

Capital,  Roman  Composite        188,189 

Capitals  (Byzantine),  from  Sta.  Sophia  at  Constanti- 
nople, showing  bossing  out  of  ornament A  and  B 

Catenary,  explained  at  page      31 

Cavetto  and  its  ornament           56,  68 

Ceiling  from  Serlio's  architecture         ...         ...       -  .-.-  89 

Ceiling,   portion  from  the  vestibule    of  St.   Spirito 

(Florence),  by  Sansovino ...  88 

Ceilings,  fillings  of           ...  85-87 

Ceilings,  panelling  of,  showing  at  A  an  improper  and 

at  B  a  proper  arrangement             92 

Checkers,  carved 98,  99 

Cinque- Cento  floral  ornament  composed  of  the  acan- 
thus, oak-leaf,  convolvulus  and  wild  rose            ...  130 

Circle,  ornament  derived  from 24-40 

Contrasting  decoration   on  rectangular  and   circular 

borders          95 

Counter-change 171 

Counter-change  pattern,  Saracenic       172 

Cyma  recta  and  its  ornament     ...         ...         ...  58,  64,  69 

Cyma  reversa  and  its  ornaments.     See  Ogee. 

Diaper,  Saracen   ...         ...         ...       '.:..       ';:.  .      ...  101 

Diaper,  Italian,  sixteenth  century         ...         ...         106,107,110 

Diaper,  Persian  influence,  sixteenth  century 100 

Diaper,  Italian,  German  origin,  sixteenth  century     ...  107 
Door  case  at  the  Erechtheum,  showing  a  portion  of 

the  Architrave,  with  the  paterae  on  the  fascia    ...  96 
Door    panels    illustrating    improper    division   at    A, 

proper  division  at  B            ...         ...         ...         ...  93 

Entablature  of  the  Erechtheum            ...        ....         ...  C 

Entablature  of  the  Caryatid  portico  attached  to  the 

Erechtheum  .  D 


INDEX   OF    ILLUSTRATIONS  xvii 

FIGS. 

Entablature  of  the  Parthenon    ...         ...         ...         ...  175 

Entablature  of  the  Greek  Ionic  Temple  on  the  Ilissus  176 

Entablature  of  the  monument  of  Lysikrates 180 

Entablature  of  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus         183 

Entablature  of  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  ...  184 

Entablature  of  the  Pantheon,  Rome     185 

Entablature  of  Jupiter  Tonans  186 

Entablature  of  the  Arch  of  Titus  ...         ...  1 89 

Festoon,  or  swag 27 

Finger-plates  of  different  outlines         ...         ...         ...  94 

Fluted  ornaments  for  flat  bands  ...         7  5,  76 

Frets,  Greek          • 12-15 

Frets,  Egyptian 16 

Inscription  from  an  Egyptian  tablet     162 

Inscription  (Japanese),  "Jiu"  or  long  life       163 

Interchange   .        ...         .'. 173,  174 

Japanese  decoration        ... i 

Japanese  decoration,  altered     ...         ...         ...         ...         2 

Kiku-Mon,  badge  of  the  Empire  of  Japan       169 

Lamp  bottoms       134,135 

Laurel  from  nature  .  .         139 

Lemon  from  nature 145 

Lily  border,  Greco- Roman         120 

Meander ...         44~47 

Monograms  in  Christian  art       170 

Mouldings,  profiles  of  Greek     61-66 

Mouldings,  profiles  of  Roman 5  5-60 

Network,  Japanese          ...         102 

Ogee,  Roman        ...  ...         57,  7 1 

Ogee,  Greek          ...  ...         ...  63,70 

Ogee  with  water-leaf  ornament  from  the  Erechtheum  70,  73 

Ogee,  Roman  variety,  with  its  ornaments       71 


xviii  INDEX    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGS. 
Opus  Alexandrinum,  from  a  pavement  in  the  Church 

of  San  Marco,  Rome  79 

Ovolo,  from  the  Erechtheum,  enriched  67 

Panel  ornament,  Renaissance 128 

Panel  (Venetian),   illustrating  balance  without   sym- 
metry    126 

Panel,  Cinque-Cento        127 

Panel  with  trophy  of  arms  and  armour  ...         ...  133 

Panel,  design  for    a   carved  wood  panel  from  the 

lemon  plant    ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  146 

Panel  arrangement  from  the  tiger-lily 148 

Paperhanging,  design  from  the  wild  rose         143 

Patera         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         Frontispiece 

Pear-tree,   winter    aspect,   illustrating  "balance"  in 

nature  ...         ...         ...         ...         ...         ...  160 

Pilaster,  designed  by  D onatello  121 

Pilaster  panel,  Cinque-Cento      ...         ...         ...         ...  122 

Pilaster  decoration,  Italian         123 

Placque,   in  silver  repousse   work,    German   seven- 
teenth century  125 

Powdering,  Japanese       103,  105 

Reduction  of  similar  ornament  in  different  spaces    ...  E 

Reeded  ornaments  for  flat  bands,  &c.              76A,  766 

Root  forms,  Mediaeval  and  Oriental     138 

Rosettes  (Roman),  composed  of  leaf  and  floral  forms  136 

Scarab,  Egyptian  symbolic  form          161 

Scroll  ornament  on  the  roof  of  the   Monument   of 

Lysikrates      53 

Shield  (Savage)  made  of  cane  and  ornamented  with 

cut  shells  and  zig-zags         97 

Spandrel  (Gothic),  from  Stone  Church,  Kent  ...  131 

Spandrel,  by  Alfred  Stevens      132 

Spiral          24 

Spiral  curves,  examples  of  ornament  chiefly  based  on 

spiral  curves  ...41,43,45,47-51 

Spotting ...          84,  103,  105 

Straight-lined  ornament  3-23 


INDEX   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  xix 

FIGS. 

Superimposed  Japanese  powdering     104 

Symbolic  ornament,  the  Egyptian  lotus  and  water  ...     165 

Tail-pieces,  or  "  lamp  bottoms "          134,  135 

Tchakra,  sacred  wheel  of  Brahma  and  Vishnu,  also 

the  "  wheel  of  fire  "  168 

Thyrsus,  staff  of  the  god  Bacchus       167 

Tiger-lily  from  nature 147 

Tree  of  life  from  an  Assyrian  bas-relief  with  wor- 
shippers    166 

Tripod  stand  on  the  top  of  the  roof  of  the  Monument 

ofLysikrates  54 

Vase,  from  the  Hildesheim  treasures 129 

Vases  (Modern  and  Greek),  showing  unequal  divi- 
sions of  the  height  and  strengthening  horizontal 
bands  90,  91 

Wild  rose  from  nature 142 

Wine-crater.     See  Vase. 

Winged  globe  and  asps,  Egyptian  symbolic  ornament     164 


INTRODUCTORY   CHAPTER 

IT  may  not  be  amiss  to  point  out  the  advantages  of 
studying  ornamental  art  even  to  those  who  do 
not  mean  to  be  artists.  The  course  to  be  adopted, 
after  acquiring  the  necessary  geometry,  is  to  draw  or 
model  plants  and  to  learn  their  anatomy.  This  will 
make  the  student  accurately  acquainted  with  the 
forms  of  plants  and  of  their  parts,  and  as  he  pro- 
gresses he  will  find  out  beauties  which  have  escaped 
him  in  a  cursory  view ;  the  further  he  proceeds, 
the  more  his  admiration  will  be  excited  by  those 
subtle  beauties  he  finds  so  hard  to  render  and  so  easy 
to  miss.  The  student  will  then  notice,  how  many 
illustrations  of  plants  are  near  enough  to  the  originals 
to  be  unmistakable,  but  that  the  grace  of  the  plants 
has  evaporated.  As  soon  as  he  is  sufficiently 
advanced  to  study  with  advantage  the  best  examples 
of  ornamental  art,  he  will  find  out  the  difficulties  the 
great  ornamentalists  have  overcome  in  applying  the 
beauties  of  nature  to  works  of  art ;  and  will  then  take 
a  deeper  interest  in  these  masterpieces,  and  receive  a 
corresponding  delight.  He  will  learn  from  these 
studies  to  reverence  the  artists  and  to  admire  the 
nation  that  produced  them ;  for  "  art  is  the  mirror  of 
a  nation's  civilization." 

B 


2  INTRODUCTORY   CHAPTER 

I  have  spoken  only  of  floral  ornament,  though  the 
highest  ornament  is  the  human  figure,  and  after  that 
animal  forms.  The  severity,  however,  of  the  requisite 
studies  to  become  a  figure  draughtsman,  which 
demand  a  knowledge  of  the  skeleton  and  of  the 
muscles,  unfortunately  deters  amateurs,  and  not  un- 
frequently  ornamentalists,  from  learning  to  draw  the 
figure,  so  that  their  works  fall  short  of  the  excel- 
lence of  the  Greeks  and  Italians,  who  were  above 
all  things  figure  draughtsmen.  Amateurs  too  will 
greatly  aid  the  art,  for  as  a  rule  excellence  is 
only  attained  when  there  are  many  educated  lovers 
of  it,  who  can  appreciate  a  beautiful  creation,  and 
reward  the  artist  by  their  judicious  admiration. 

For  twenty  years  I  have  pointed  out  that  Nature 
offers  her  beauties  gratuitously  to  mankind  for  its 
solace  and  delight ;  perhaps,  however,  the  following 
words  of  Emile  de  Laveleye,  in  his  book  on  Luxtrty, 
will  have  more  weight :— 

"  Might  not  the  man  of  the  people,  on  whom  the 
curse  of  matter  weighs  with  so  heavy  a  load,  find  the 
best  kind  of  alleviation  for  his  hard  condition,  if  his 
eyes  were  open  to  what  Leonardo  da  Vinci  calls  la 
bellezsa  delmondo — ( the  beautiful  things  of  the  earth '  ? 
*  .  .  Pindar  says,  'In  the  day  when  the  Rhodians 
shall  erect  an  altar  to  Minerva,  a  rain  of  gold  will  fall 
upon  the  isle.'  The  golden  rain  which  falls  on  any 
people  when  literature  and  the  fine  arts  are  en- 
couraged ...  is  a  shower  of  pure  and  disinterested 
delights." 

I  am  tempted  to  say  something  on  the  prospects  of 
ornamental  art.  Nothing  in  this  world  can  be  had 
without  paying  for  it,  but  though  we  must  all  live, 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  3 

those  who  have  devoted  their  lives  to  the  creation  of 
the  beautiful,  look  more  to  the  delight  they  give  and 
the  admiration  they  excite,  than  to  mere  pecuniary 
rewards.  No  art  will  ever  flourish  unless  there  are 
educated  and  enthusiastic  admirers  of  its  master- 
pieces. The  artist  will  never  devote  his  talents  to  an 
art,  and  undergo  the  ceaseless  toil  requisite  to  create 
beauty,  unless  he  be  rewarded  by  the  praise  of  real 
judges.  I  fear  we  cannot  as  yet  make  the  Greek 
boast  "  that  we  love  the  beautiful "  ;  but  until  we  do 
love  it,  we  can  hardly  expect  to  rival  those  who 
did. 

The  whole  ornamental  art  of  the  world  is  now 
before  us,  and  it  is  not  to  be  believed  that  artists 
would  not  elaborate  something  new  and  beautiful 
from  all  the  knowledge  they  have  gained,  if  there 
were  a  passionate  desire  for  it  among  the  people, 
This  can  never  be  so  long  as  the  public  is  content 
with  paraphrases  of  deceased  art,  or  merely  asks  for  a 
jumble  of  discordant  scraps.  Novelty  we  must  needs 
have,  for  this  generation  does  not  inherit  the  precise 
tastes  of  former  days,  not  even  those  of  its  immediate 
predecessor,  and  it  is  this  generation  that  wants  to  be 
charmed  :  it  is  true  that  it  gets  novelty,  but  it  should 
want  beautiful  novelty,  and  not  that  which  is  common- 
place or  ugly.  Novelty  in  art  is  not  an  absolute 
difference  from  what  has  gone  before,  for  that  is  sure 
to  be  bad,  but  only  that  difference  and  that  improve- 
ment which  one  instructed  generation  can  give  to  the 
past  excellence  it  builds  on.  It  is  therefore  necessary 
for  the  student  who  is  born  an  artist,  and  hopes  to 
create  new  loveliness,  to  be  steeped  in  the  beauties  of 
nature  and  of  art.  To  attain  this  a  profound  study 


4  INTRODUCTORY   CHAPTER 

of  nature  and  the  masterpieces  of  former  art  are 
wanted,  for,  as  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  said,  "  Invention 
is  one  of  the  greatest  marks  of  genius,  .  .  .  and  it 
is  by  being  conversant  with  the  inventions  of  others 
that  we  learn  to  invent " ;  while  to  express  our 
knowledge  and  invention  admirable  draughtsmanship 
is  requisite. 

We  have  a  novel  phase  of  ornament,  which 
consists  in  twisting  or  arranging  certain  plants  into 
the  shape  required,  to  make  them  fit  their  places. 
Much  of  this  work  is  flabby  or  wire-drawn,  and  often 
omits  the  highest  beauty  of  the  plants  it  uses,  but 
even  when  the  beauty  of  the  plant  is  not  left  out,  the 
ornament  is  infinitely  below  the  highest  flights  of 
former  art,  in  which  the  artist  had  absorbed  the  graces 
of  floral  growth  and  had  properly  applied  them.  The 
highest  ornament,  by  its  abstraction,  is  closely  allied 
to  architectural  art,  while  all  its  higher  achievements 
are  in  conjunction  with  architecture ;  consequently 
there  should  be  a  harmony  between  the  decoration 
and  the  framework.  Natural  foliage  arranged  on  a 
geometrical  basis  makes  a  poor  contrast  to  noble 
architecture. 

All  ornamental  arts>  that  are  not  realistic  imita- 
tions, must  be  founded  on  precedent  art.  We  have 
only  one  complete  system  of  decorative  art  that  took 
an  entirely  new  direction  besides  Gothic,  and  that 
harmonizes  with  its  architecture — the  Saracenic — and 
that  art  is  not  congenial  to  our  taste,  feelings,  or 
desires.  Gothic  ornamental  art  is  mostly  too  barbaric 
or  too  realistic  to  suit  us,  except  when  it  is  borrowed 
from  Roman,  Byzantine,  or  Saracenic  sources;  in 
fact,  we  have  nothing  but  Roman,  Byzantine,  and 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  5 

Renaissancejirt  to  fall  back  on  for  ornament  ;  of 
Greek  ornamental  art  we  have  some  carved  stone- 
work, moulded  metal-work,  painting  on  vases,  incised 
work,  and  the  traces  of  painting.  Little  of  secular 
Byzantine  art  remains,  though  it  is  not  probable 
that  it  materially  differed  from  the  ecclesiastical 
art  of  its  period  ;  it  was  Roman  art  modified  by  the 
new  religion  and  by  Greek  and  Oriental  taste,  in 
which  saints  and  martyrs,  with  their  attributes  or 
symbols,  took  the  place  of  the  antique  gods  and 
goddesses  ;  while  the  Renaissance  was  an  attempted 
revival  of  Roman. 

We  cannot  expect  to  equal  at  once  the  master- 
pieces of  Greek,  Roman,  or  Renaissance  art ;  we 
have  neither  the  centuries  of  experience  nor  the 
cultivated  public.  Every  artist,  however,  can,  by  the 
means  before  mentioned,  be  sure  of  having  conquered 
the  preliminaries  of  his  art,  and  he  can  be  sincere  ; 
he  can  give  us  those  beauties  from  nature  that  have 
captivated  him,  and  have  been  transfused  into  orna- 
ment by  the  alembic  of  his  mind  ;  such  ornament 
will  be  sure  to  find  some  congenial  spirits  to  admire 
it :  and  I  think  I  may  say  that  a  public  sufficiently 
cultivated  to  appreciate  real  art  is  gradually  being 
formed.  The  highest  art  is  undoubtedly  that  which 
is  the  simplest  and  most  perfect,  which  gives  the 
experience  and  skill  of  a  lifetime  by  a  few  lines  or 
touches  ;  and  this  art  is  more  calculated  to'captivate 
the  best  taste  of  the  day  than  the  complex  or  the 
intricate.  However,  there  will  even  now  be  ample 
recognition  of  the  creations  of  any  skilled  artist  who 
is  sincere,  let  his  genius  take  him  where  it  will. 
There  is,  too,  this  consolation  for  every  true  artist 


6  INTRODUCTORY   CHAPTER 

whose  works  remain  :  that  if  there  are  few  judges  of 
his  work  now,  there  may  be  more  hereafter — judges 
who  when  they  look  at  his  work  will  say,  this  is  the 
work  of  a  true  artist ;  and  he  may  confer  delight 
on  unborn  thousands,  and  direct  attention,  in  after 
ages,  to  those  beauties  of  nature  that  have  been 
overlooked. 

I  will  now  revert  to  the  book,  and  confine  myself 
to  such  remarks  as  I  hope  may  be  useful  to  those 
who  study  it.  The  student,  when  he  has  learnt  and 
comprehended  the  laws,  should  observe  growing 
plants,  and  notice  that  every  plant  illustrates  some, 
and  mostly  many,  of  the  laws ;  and  when  he  has 
clearly  distinguished  them,  he  should  examine  the 
best  ornament  of  antiquity  and  the  Renaissance,  and 
satisfy  himself  that  the  laws,  involved  in  the  particular 
example  he  is  studying,  have  been  followed.  When 
he  has  done  this,  he  should  note  any  divergence  from 
the  laws  and  endeavour  to  understand  the  reason 
for  it.  To  ensure  the  effect  they  intend,  great  artists 
sometimes  ignore  the  ordinary  laws. 

It  is  well  that  he  should  consider  that  the  main 
object  of  every  plant  is  to  live  and  propagate  itself: 
to  live  it  wants  air,  moisture,  and  nourishment,  and 
mostly  sunshine,  and  it  must  strive  to  get  these 
necessaries  amidst  a  crowd  of  competitors.  In  this 
struggle  the  plant  is  often  dwarfed  or  distorted,  and 
still  more  frequently  some  of  its  parts  are  deformed; 
its  flowers  must  attract  insects  by  their  colour  or 
scent,  and  must  allure  the  insects  by  the  honey  they 
distil  to  fertilize  them  ;  so  that  beauty,  except  in 
the  colour  of  the  flowers,  is  for  the  plant  a  secondary 
consideration. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  7 

In  ornament,  on  the  contrary,  beauty  is  the  only 
consideration,  except  perhaps  in  mnemonic  and 
symbolic  ornament ;  and  these  must  have  beauty,  or 
they  cease  to  be  ornament. 

Ornament  has  also  to  be  portrayed  on  some 
material,  or  carved  in  it ;  it  should  conform  to  the 
shape  of  the  object,  be  governed  by  the  quality  of 
the  material,  and  by  the  use  to  which  the  object  is 
to  be  put— 'e.g.  a  leaf  may  be  carved  in  certain 
woods,  almost  of  the  thinness  of  the  real  leaf,  but 
then  it  must  be  preserved  in  a  glass  case.  This 
thinness  is  not  to  be  got  if  the  leaf  be  carved  in 
stone;  the  artist  must  therefore  see  what  beauties  he 
can  abstract  from  the  plant  he  has  chosen  or  from 
floral  growth  generally,  so  that  it  can  be  carved. 
He  should  in  all  cases  know  that  his  design  can  be 
expressed  in  the  material  to  be  used,  that  it  will 
ornament  the  object,  will  not  be  easily  destroyed, 
and  will  not  interfere  with  the  use  of  the  object.  If 
he  succeeds  in  doing  this,  his  skill,  taste,  and  judg- 
ment will  be  admired.  This  necessary  abstraction 
we  unfortunately  call  convention,  and  when  it  makes 
good  ornament,  and  shows  the  characteristic  beauty 
and  vigour  of  plant  form,  it  is  of  the  highest  sort ; 
this  is  found  in  the  best  Greek,  Roman,  and  Renais- 
sance ornament,  while  when  a  coarse  and  clumsy 
imitation  of  nature  is  made,  with  all  the  beauty  left 
out,  it  is  the  lowest  sort  of  convention. 

Any  cheap  speculative  houses  that  have  carving 
upon  them,  will  afford  ample  illustrations  of  con- 
temporary convention  in  its  worst  form. 

Gothic  ornament  was  quite  new ;  for  no  sooner  did 
the  architects,  carvers,  masons,  carpenters,  and  others 


8  INTRODUCTORY   CHAPTER 

find  that  they  had  surpassed  the  old  world   in  con- 
structive skill,  than  they  looked  down  on  all  the  old 
world   arts,  and   would    not   be   beholden   to   them. 
They   were   determined   to   begin   afresh ;  they  had 
human  beings,  animals,  trees,  plants,  and  flowers,  as 
well  as   the    Romans  and    Byzantines ;   why  should 
they   not    make    as    good    statues    and    ornament  ? 
There  is  much  to  be  said  in  favour  of  this  contention, 
for  every  one  must  desire  to  see  his  house,  his  town- 
hall,  and  his  church  ornamented  with  the  flowers  and 
plants  that  he  knows  and  loves,  instead  of  with  the 
conventionalized  plants  of  other  countries  that  he  does 
not  know,  or  that  he  has  gazed  on  to  satiety.     But  it 
is  one  thing  to  have  a  longing,  and  another  to  be  able 
to  bring  plants,  leaves,  and  flowers  into  the  domain  of 
high  art.    The  early  Gothic  sculptors  did  give  a  certain 
crispness,  and  in  some  cases  even  a  monumental  air  to 
their  carved  flora,  and  sometimes  they  got  that  mys- 
terious look  of  infinite  complexity  that  is  found  in 
nature,  and  they  had  invention  to  a  marvellous  degree. 
From  the  sculptors  working  on  the  spot,  and  being 
able  to  see  each  figure  and  piece  of  ornament  in  its 
place,   they    never    missed    their    effect.      All   their 
ornament  answered  its  main  end,  of  giving  a  broken 
mass   of  light    and   shade   to    contrast    with   plain 
surfaces,    mouldings,    or    shafts,  while    much    of    it 
was  vigorous ;  but  some  of  the  early  Gothic  foliage 
has  no  grace,  is  often  destitute  of  floral  character, 
and  might  be  mistaken  for  hanks  of  string  on  pieces 
of  firewood,  or  worm-eaten  wigs.     The  first  touch  of 
the  Renaissance  brought  a  sweetness  of  proportion 
to  architecture  and  a  grace  to  floral  ornament  that  is 
most  striking. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  9 

Good  traditional  ornament  has  these  inestimable 
advantages,  that  it  has  been  treated  for  ages  by  skilful 
men,  so  that  its  faults  have  been  corrected,  new 
graces  have  been  added  to  it,  and  it  has  been  fitted 
to  properly  fill  the  requisite  shapes.  From  the  first, 
the  artist  must  have  noticed  some  special  beauties 
and  fitness  in  the  plant  he  chose,  and  the  ornament 
must  have  had  some  striking  qualities  to  make  it 
popular ;  for  why  else  should  it  have  been  preferred 
and  persisted  in,  when  so  many  other  plants  had 
great  beauty  ?  There  is,  however,  some  ornament 
that,  after  it  has  once  been  perfected,  seems  incapable 
of  further  improvement.  The  egg  and  tongue  may 
be  cited  as  an  instance.  It  has  never  been  improved 
since  the  perfecting  of  Greek  architecture,  nor  has 
any  good  substitute  for  it  been  found.  A  coarse 
caricature  of  it  is  still  the  most  popular  ornament  of 
the  ovolo.  The  Romans  converted  it  into  a  floral 
form  at  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  with  marked 
want  of  success. 

The  Greek  honeysuckle  and  the  acanthus  are  the 
most  striking  examples  of  good  traditional  ornament. 
To  take  the  acanthus  first,  it  was  started  by  the 
Greeks,  continued  by  the  Romans,  and  used  by  the 
Byzantines  with  a  different  character,  then  adopted 
by  the  Renaissance  artists,  and  has  been  treated  in 
an  entirely  novel  way  by  Alfred  Stevens  in  our  own 
day.  Stevens  has  given  a  peculiarly  plastic  character 
to  its  leafage  in  the  Wellington  monument.  That 
form  of  it  which  is  used  in  the  Corinthian  capital  has 
had  such  an  infinity  of  pains  bestowed  on  it,  that 
improvement  on  the  old  lines  is  scarcely  to  be 
expected,  though  new  floral  capitals  may  be  invented. 


*o  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER 

Every  portion  of  the  leaf,  down  to  its  rafflings,  has 
been  perfected  to  the  end  the  Romans  destined  it 
to  fulfil,  though,  as  in  all  human  inventions,  some- 
thing was  sacrificed  to  attain  it.  The  Greek  capital 
was  rather  deficient  in  outline,  but  it  was  possessed 
of  the  most  exquisite  floral  grace,  and  this  was 
sacrificed  by  the  Romans  to  attain  distinctness, 
strength,  and  dignity ;  these  qualities  being  par- 
ticularly necessary  when  it  was  used  in  colossal 
monuments.  Even  when  it  was  on  a  smaller  scale, 
we  can  see  the  advantages  of  the  change.  In 
some  Byzantine  buildings,  old  Greek  and  Roman 
Corinthian  columns  have  been  used  together.  As 
an  isolated  ornament  the  Greek  capital  is  greatly  to 
be  preferred,  but  when  the  two  are  seen  in  con- 
junction as  parts  of  the  building,  the  Roman  capital 
is  clear,  distinct,  and  dignified,  while  the  Greek  one 
is  a  confused  mass. 

In  their  colossal  capitals,  the  Romans  mostly 
substituted  the  olive-leaf  for  the  natural  raffle,  and 
used  but  four  or  five  in  each  leaflet ;  though  the 
oak-leaf,  the  parsley,  and  the  endive  were  occasionally 
used.  Each  raffle  of  the  olive-leafed  variety  is 
hollowed  by  a  curve  without  ribs,  the  only  lines 
being  those  made  by  the  edges  of  the  hollows,  and 
each  leaflet  is  hollowed  out  like  a  cockle-shell  as  well. 
In  the  best  examples,  the  upper  edges  of  each  leaflet 
are  mostly  clear  of  the  one  above  or  overlap  it ; 
in  the  first  case  they  are  thrown  up  by  the  shadow 
behind,  in  the  latter  the  edges  of  the  raffles  are 
bright  against  the  half  light  of  the  leaflets  above, 
and  are  also  thrown  up  by  the  shade  in  their  points. 
The  top  of  the  complete  leaf  curls  over,  and  thus 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  u 

throws  its  shadow  on  the  part  below,  so  there  is  the 
contrast  between  masses  of  light,  graduated  shade, 
and  graduated  shadow.  The  back  of  the  leaf  was 
used  to  get  a  wide  stem,  and  this  stem  tapers 
upwards,  while  the  pipes,  that  come  from  the  eyes 
between  the  leaflets,  taper  downwards,  are  nearly 
parallel  with  the  stem,  and  are  deeply  undercut,  thus 
making  the  whole  leaf  distinct  and  vigorous  (Fig. 
no).  If  examples  are  compared,  the  superiority 
of  the  parallel  pipes  over  those  that  run  into  the 
stem  is  at  once  seen.  The  lower  leaves  are  cut 
through  horizontally  in  the  middle,  and  come  straight 
down  on  to  the  necking,  which  gives  much  more 
vigour  to  the  capital,  than  when  the  bell  turns  inwards 
above  the  necking. 

The  student  will  do  well  to  carefully  draw  a  good 
example,  then  model  it,  and  then  carve  it,  for  it  has 
been  the  type  from  which  most  good  floral  capitals 
have  been  derived.  The  acanthus  and  other  floral 
ornament  used  by  the  Italian  Renaissance  artists 
deserve  quite  as  much  attention  as  the  Roman  ;  for 
though  their  ornament  was  not  on  the  same  colossal 
scale,  it  was  done  by  excellent  figure  sculptors  who 
had  studied  ornament,  and  were  of  finer  artistic  fibre 
than  the  Romans,  besides  having  the  best  Roman 
examples  for  their  models.  The  Italian  artists  were, 
too,  nearly  as  fond  of  the  human  figure  as  the 
Greeks,  and  introduced  it  wherever  they  could  do  so 
appropriately. 

There  is  perhaps  but  one  other  ornament  that  is 
worthy  of  the  profoundest  study,  the  radiating 
ornament  of  the  Greeks,  known  as  the  Greek  honey- 
suckle. This  ornament  is  full  of  subtle  devices,  in 


12  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER 

the  elegant  graduation  of  its  forms,  in  the  proportion- 
ing of  the  masses,  in  its  even  distribution,  and  in  the 
making  of  the  different  curves  enhance  the  value  of 
one  another.  There  is  often,  too,  a  suggestion  of 
horizontality  or  verticality  introduced,  that  gives 
the  highest  value  to  the  composition  ;  all  showing 
the  intimate  acquaintance  with  nature  that  the  Greek 
artists  possessed.  Many  of  the  Greek  running 
patterns  are  both  original  and  effective,  and  in  some 
of  them  tangential  junction  is  distinctly  avoided, 
to  attract  attention  to  the  ornament.  The  Greeks, 
too,  were  pre-eminent  in  knowing  the  use  of  restraint 
and  the  value  of  plainness.  When  the  sculptor  had 
carved  his  ornament  on  an  architectural  monument 
he  seemed  to  say,  "  Better  this  if  you  can  ! " 

The  Byzantines  understood  the  value  of  gradation, 
and  when  they  wholly  ornamented  a  profile,  they 
made  some  parts  in  bold,  some  in  low  relief,  and 
engraved  or  sunk  other  parts.  The  Saracens  learned 
this  art  from  them,  and  so  improved  on  it,  that  the 
general  effect  of  their  best  work  resembles  Greek  art ; 
at  the  proper  distance  the  subordinate  ornament 
looks  like  a  mere  difference  of  texture. 

Saracenic  ornament  affords  the  only  instances  of 
complete   floral   decoration    without    the    figures   of 
man  or  animals  ;  and  although  it  is   inclined  to  be 
monotonous,   and    geometrical   forms   are    too   pre- 
dominant, it  is,  when  coloured   and  gilt,  saved  from 
monotony  by  the  magical  change  of  the  patterns  on 
the  beholder  shifting  his  position.     This  effect  is  ob- 
tained by  trifling  differences  of  level  in  the  planes  of  the 
ornament  and  by  gilding.  Its  floral  forms,  however,  are 
usually  coarse  and  poor,  and  have  no  refined  graces. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  13 

There  are  a  few  points  not  touched  on  in  the  book 
which  it  may  be  well  to  mention.  One  is  a  device 
that  was,  I  think,  only  used  by  the  Byzantines,  i.e. 
bossing  out  ornament  to  catch  the  light.  Constantine 
the  Great,  when  he  had  the  Church  of  the  Holy 
Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem  built,  had  the  capitals  of  the 
sanctuary  columns  made  of  silver,  and  doubtless  the 
silversmiths  in  working  them  hammered  out  some 
bosses  to  catch  the  light.  This  device  was  seized  on 
by  the  sculptors  of  Sta.  Sophia  at  Constantinople, 
and  used  in  the  marble  capitals  of  its  columns  and 
pilasters  (Figs.  A  and  B). 

I  may  also  draw  attention  to  another  Byzantine 
device,  which  charmed  Mr.  Ruskin  at  St.  Mark's — 
the  leaves  of  capitals  caught  by  the  wind  and  blown 
aside.  Capitals  with  a  similar  device  existed  in  Sta. 
Sophia  at  Salonica,  some  of  which  were  partly  calcined 
by  the  late  fire.  The  propriety  of  using  such  an 
incident  in  the  conventional  stone  ornaments  of  a 
supporting  member  may  be  doubted,  still  we  must 
admire  the  observation  and  genius  of  the  sculptor ; 
and  there  are  many  opportunities  of  using  such  an 
incident  when  the  ornament  is  not  on  a  supporting 
member.  I  point  it  out  to  show  what  fresh  resources 
for  the  ornamentalist  are  to  be  found  in  nature,  when 
he  has  the  industry  to  observe  and  the  talent  to 
create. 

There  are  cases  where  architectural  features  have 
to  be  reduced,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be  emphasized 
too.  No  better  example  of  this  is  to  be  found  than 
in  the  Caryatid  temple  attached  to  the  Erechtheum. 
Its  entablature  was  below  the  main  one,  and  so  had 
to  be  smaller,  and  yet  was  wanted  to  be  important 


t%g^r&sg£js&&  ^ 


FIGS.  A  and  B.— Byzantine  Capitals  from  Sta.  Sophia  at  Constantinople, 
showing  the  bossing  out  of  the  ornament. 


FIG.  C. — Entablature  of  the  Erechtheum. 


o    o 


FIG.  D*— Entablature  of  the  Caryatid  portico  of  the  Erechtheum. 


16  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER 

and  weighty  enough  for  the  figures.  All  the  frieze 
but  the  capping  was  consequently  left  out,  the  top 
fascia  of  the  architrave  was  enriched  with  circular 
discs,  and  between  the  cappings  of  the  architrave 
and  frieze  a  deep  dentil  band  was  introduced.  Mainly 
by  these  means  the  due  effect  was  gained  (Figs.  C 
and  D), 

Ornament  has  sometimes  to  be  repeated  in  a 
composition  on  a  smaller  scale,  and  this  should  not 
be  done  by  merely  reducing  the  scale  so  as  to  have 
a  diminutive  reproduction,  but  by  keeping  the  general 
form  of  the  ornament  with  fewer  details.  Several  ex- 
amples maybe  found  in  M.Mayeux's  book.1  Instances 
of  the  same  motive  being  repeated  in  the  same  height 
and  in  a  narrower  width  are  sometimes  found.  An 
example  may  be  seen  beneath  the  double  and  single 
windows  of  an  hotel  in  the  Rue  Dalbard,  Toulouse 2 
(Fig.  E). 

I  ll 


FIG.  E. — Reduction  of  similar  ornament  in  different  spaces. 

Much  might  be  said  on  the  subject  of  materials, 
but  I  will  only  make  a  few  remarks.  In  making  a 
design,  due  consideration  should  be  given  to  the 
material  employed,  so  that  the  natural  ornamentation 
of  one  material  may  not  be  put  on  another ;  pottery 
is  turned  on  the  wheel,  and  is  adapted  for  painting, 
while  hollow  metal  vessels  are  embossed,  but  it  is 

1  M.  Henri  Mayeux,  La  Composition  Decorative,  8vo,  Paris,  s.a. 
a  See  M.  Cesar  Daly's  Motifs  HiStorique^  fol,  Paris,  1881. 


INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER  17 

common  enough  to  see  pottery  embossed,  which  can, 
it  is  true,  be  accomplished  by  casting  or  by  inlaying, 
yet  this  sort  of  ornamentation  always  looks  in- 
appropriate. Stone  is  usually  of  large  and  wood 
of  small  scantling,  yet  in  the  front  of  a  stone  building 
with  arched  openings  the  wooden  door-head  is  often 
made  a  continuation  of  the  stone  impost,  though  the 
mouldings  of  the  wood-work  should  be  finer  and  the 
ornament  different. 

Although  the  young  student  should  confine  his 
attention  to  the  best  styles,  the  advanced  one  should 
have  some  acquaintance  with  all  traditional  ornament, 
even  the  styles  of  Louis  XIV.  and  XV.,  a  grafting  of 
Chinese  and  Japanese  ornament  on  the  current  classic, 
fof  they  are  the  only  modern  styles,  except  the  early 
Renaissance,  that  have  complete  unity.  The  same 
style  runs  through  the  whole  building,  down  to  the 
door  furniture  and  the  damask  of  the  chairs ;  the 
handling,  too,  is  often  admirable,  and  the  examples 
are  full  of  hints  to  the  advanced  student,  who  is 
unlikely  to  be  infected  with  the  rococo  style. 

I  have  dwelt  much  on  carving  for  several  reasons  ; 
it  is  the  most  lasting  of  ornamental  work,  and  as  a 
rule  the  most  important ;  it  is  susceptible  of  the 
greatest  perfection  when  executed  in  marble,  and  all 
architectural  ornament  must  eventually  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  sculptor,  since  he  has  devoted  his  life 
to  its  study.  I  may  add  that  the  French  architects 
look  upon  it  as  the  weak  point  in  English  architecture. 

To  the  young  student  I  may  say  that  he  can 
never  become  an  artist  until  he  has  mastered  the 
fundamental  principles  of  his  art ;  and  that  nothing 
can  deserve  the  name  of  ornament  that  is  not  both 

c 


i8  INTRODUCTORY  CHAPTER 

appropriate  and  beautiful,  and  has  been  evolved  from 
nature  by  the  mind  of  man.  I  would  suggest  to  the 
young  artist  that  the  flora  of  the  world  is  not  confined 
to  the  lotus,  the  honeysuckle,  and  the  acanthus ;  that 
if  accident  caused  the  original  choice  of  these  plants, 
it  was  the  infinite  pains  bestowed  on  their  treatment 
that  caused  their  persistence.  There  are,  too,  thousands 
of  beauties  still  to  be  culled  from  plants  and  flowers 
that  now  remain  outside  the  domain  of  art.  Let  the 
student  remember  that  knowledge,  skill,  truth,  and 
sincerity  are  the  main  roads  to  real  success,  and  that 
real  success  is,  to  have  produced  some  beauty  that 
has  captivated  or  will  captivate  mankind. 

G.  AlTCHISON. 


THE 

PRINCIPLES   OF  ORNAMENT 

CHAPTER  I 

ORNAMENT  is  the  proper  enrichment  of  an 
object  or  surface  with  such  forms,  or  forms 
and  colours,  as  will  give  the  thing  decorated  a 
new  beauty,  while  strictly  preserving  its  shape  and 
character.  It  is  the  function  of  ornament  to  emphasize 
the  forms  of  the  object  it  decorates,  not  to  hide  them. 
Decoration  is  not  necessarily  ornament ;  for  instance, 
the  lovely  sprays  of  plants  with  birds  and  cognate 
subjects,  painted  on  Japanese  pottery,  may  be  called 
beautiful  decoration,  but  cannot  in  our  sense  of 
the  word  be  called  ornament ;  for  however  realistic 
ornament  may  be,  it  must  show  that  it  has  passed 
through  the  mind  of  man,  and  been  acted  on  by  it. 
This  kind  of  decoration  might  be  a  literal  transcript 
from  nature,  and  neither  emphasizes  the  boundaries 
of  the  decorated  surface  nor  harmonizes  with  them. 
It  possesses  an  exquisite  beauty  of  its  own,  for 
the  drawing  and  colour  and  the  style  of  execution 
are  good.  With  the  exception  of  frets  and  diapers, 

19 


vZRSITY 


20 


THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   ORNAMENT 


true  ornament  is  rare  in  Japanese  art.  Fig.  i  is  a 
Japanese  decoration  on  an  oblong  surface.  Such 
a  design  is  pretty,  but  we  can  hardly  call  it  ornament. 
Something  must  be  done  with  it  before  we  can  give 
it  that  name. 


FIG.  I.— Japanese  decoration. 


\  To  make  an  ornamental  design,  the  units  of  the 

decoration  must  be  arranged  and  brought  into  order  ; 
repetition  and  symmetry  may  not  be  required,  but 
even  distribution,  order,  and  balance  are  indispensable. 


FIG.  2.— Japanese  decoration  altered. 

The  whole  too  must  not  appear  to  be  accidental  but 
designed  for  the  object,  while  No.  I  might  have  been 
made  from  a  shadow  cast  on  a  window.  The. 
sketch  at  Fig.  2  is  an  attempt  to  illustrate  our  notion 
of  ornament  by  using  the  elements  in  Fig.  I  evenly 
distributed,  having  at  the  same  time  a  due  regard  to 
the  boundary-lines  of  the  panel. 


METHODS   OF   EXPRESSION  21 

Applied  ornament  is  that  which  is  specially  designed 
and  fitted  for  the  position  it  occupies. 

Independent  ornaments  are  such  things  as  shields, 
labels,  medallions,  &c.,  with  or  without  enclosing 
frames ;  paterae,  festoons,  and  other  loose  ornamental 
objects,  which  may  be  attached  to  a  surface,  and 
may  be  used  alone,  or  in  combination  with  applied 
ornament  (Fig.  133). 

Numerous  examples  may  be  given  of  inappropriate 
ornament.  As  a  rule,  any  kind  of  ornament  that  is 
not  suited  to  the  surface  ornamented,  or  is  falsely 
constructed,  may  be  called  inappropriate.  For  in- 
stance, if  upright  panels  and  pilasters  were  decorated 
with  ornament  running  in  oblique  lines,  or  with  a 
strongly-marked  series  of  horizontal  bands  ;  or  if  a 
carpet  pattern  were  designed  to  run  in  one  particular 
direction ;  or,  from  an  architectural  point  of  view,  if 
columns  supporting  nothing  were  used  in  decoration  ; 
if  consoles  or  brackets  were  turned  upside  down  ;  or  if 
curved  mouldings  were  decorated  with  frets;  or  panels 
were  overloaded  with  mouldings  ;  if  forms,  organic 
or  otherwise,  were  used  together,  but  out  of  scale  with 
one  another ;  or  things  were  made  to  simulate  what 
they  are  not ;  or  there  were  a  great  excess  of  enrich- 
ment; each  of  these  examples  might  be  considered 
as  inappropriate  ornament. 

Methods  of  Expression. — Ornament  is  expressed  in 
three  different  ways:  Firstly,  by  pure  outline,  as 
traced  with  a  point ;  secondly,  where  breadth  is 
added,  by  flat  tints  as  in  painting  with  the  brush,  or 
by  shading,  hatching,  spotting,  or  stippling;  thirdly, 
by  relief,  or  sinking,  as  in  modelling  and  sculpture. 


22  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   ORNAMENT 

These  three  divisions  may  be  subdivided,  but  all  the 
subdivisions  are  but  varieties  or  combinations  of  the 
first  three  genera.  Relief  modelled  or  pierced  orna- 
ment has  no  other  outline  than  that  given  by  light 
and  shade ;  but  it  may  also  be  coloured,  i.  e.  in  two 
shades — one  for  the  ornament  and  one  for  the  back- 
ground, or  with  the  forms  and  background  "  picked 
out "  in  a  variety  of  colours.  Shaded  or  painted  orna- 
ment in  the  flat  is  an  imitation  of  relief  work,  and 
will  be  noticed  again. 

Ornament  Expressed  in  Outline. — All  the  early 
decorative  work  of  mankind,  both  the  prehistoric 
etchings  on  bone  and  on  pottery,  the  line  decoration 
on  Assyrian  cylinders,  bronze  dishes  and  tablets,  and 
the  incised  work  on  the  Greek,  Etruscan,  and  Roman 
cistas,  hand-mirrors,  and  vases  come  under  this  head  ; 
as  well  as  sgraffito-work  when  expressed  by  outline,  cut 
in  plaster  showing  a  different-coloured  plaster  beneath. 

Ornament  Expressed  by  Flat  Tints,  in  monochrome 
or  colour,  with  no  shading  and  without  shadow,  is  a 
common  method  of  ornamentation.  This  class  in- 
cludes painted  ornament  on  the  flat,  whether  poly- 
chromatic or  in  "  grisaille  "  ;  inlaid  wood-work,  called 
parquetry  when  used  for  floors,  and  marquetry  when 
used  for  other  purposes ;  inlaid  marble,  stone,  tile 
and  plaster  work,  mosaic,  tesselated,  sectile  and 
Alexandrine  pavements  ;  damascened  metal-work  ; 
some  enamels,  lac-work,  and  painted  pottery ;  woven, 
embrondered,  printed,  and  stencilled  stuffs,  including 
oil-cloth ;  enamelled  glass  ;  and  some  sgraffito-work. 
It  is  convenient  to  class  under  this  head  certain 


METHODS    OF    EXPRESSION  23 

work  of  slight  thickness  or  relief,  such  as  lace,  ap- 
plied work  of  paper,  stuffs,  velvet,  &c.,  fine  filigree 
and  wire- work.  Inlay  under  the  name  of  "Tarsia" 
was  greatly  used  by  the  Italians  in  the  decoration  of 
cathedrals  and  churches  and  in  fittings  and  furniture ; 
in  cathedral  stalls  and  sacristy  fittings,  boxwood  was 
commonly  inlaid  in  walnut,  but  ebony  and  ivory  were 
largely  employed  for  house  furniture  and  fittings,  and 
many  different  substances  were  sometimes  employed. 
Tortoiseshell,  gold,  silver,  ivory,  mother-of-pearl,  and 
different  coloured  woods  are  largely  employed  for  the 
same  purpose  by  Orientals  and  others.  A  species  of 
inlay  composed  of  white  and  stained  ivory,  ebony, 
and  silver,  in  geometrical  patterns,  is  much  used  by 
the  cabinet-makers  of  India — our  Tunbridge  ware  is 
supposed  to  be  an  imitation  of  it. 

Flat  Tints  enriched  by  Outline  were  sometimes  used 
in  Greek  vases,  and  are  often  used  in  inlays  and 
damascened  work ;  very  pretty  examples  may  be  found 
in  old  Chinese  lac- work,  inlaid  with  figures  and  land- 
scapes in  black  mother-of-pearl,  the  features,  &c.  being 
outlined. 

Relief-work. — Ordinary  modelled  and  carved  work, 
either  in  relief  or  sunk,  is  too  well  known  to  need 
description ;  but  under  this  heading  are  included 
pierced,  open,  and  turned  work,  and  such  compound 
work  as  may  be  pierced,  or  turned  and  carved  or 
incised  as  well. 

Coloured  Relief-work* — All  Egyptian,  Greek,  and 
Mediaeval  bas-reliefs,  and  some  if  not  all  of  their 
figure  sculpture  in  the  round,  were  coloured,  but  when 
the  figures  were  of  white  marble,  the  colour  was 


24  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   ORNAMENT 

generally  confined  to  the  flesh,  eyes,  and  hair,  and  to 
the  stripes  or  patterns  on  the  dresses.  In  one  of  the 
white  marble  sarcophagi  from  Sidon,  now  in  the 
Museum  at  Constantinople,  while  figures  of  half  life- 
size  are  left  wholly  white,  smaller  figures  are  wholly 
coloured  and  gilt,  like  the  terra-cotta  ones  of  Tanagra, 
and  some  of  the  ornament  is  white  on  a  purple 
ground.  All  the  Italian  Renaissance  bas-reliefs  in 
"  gesso  duro"  were  wholly  coloured. 

In  Greek  temples  the  carved  ornament  was  coloured, 
including  the  triglyphs,  and  parts  of  the  ornament 
were  often  gilt,  the  uncut  mouldings  too  were  mostly 
ornamented  in  colour.  In  some  enamelled  pottery  in 
relief,  the  figures  or  ornament  were  left  white  on  a 
coloured  ground,  or  the  drapery  of  the  figures  and 
the  ornament  were  coloured,  as  in  some  of  the  Delia 
Robbia  ware.  All  Roman  embossed  plaster  was 
coloured  and  gilt.  Much  relief-work  in  bronze  and 
the  precious  metals  has  been  coloured  by  means  of 
enamel,  or  alloys  in  the  metal ;  coloured  mosaic  has 
been  used  to  clothe  columns,  and  some  mosaic  and 
pietra  dura  is  in  relief,  as  well  as  lac  and  ivory  work' 
inlaid  with  fine  stones,  mother-of-pearl,  and  ivory ; 
all  Moresque  and  some  Saracen  embossed  plaster- 
work,  and  probably  carved  stone-work,  was  coloured 
and  gilt ;  some  Burmese  plaster-work  in  relief  is  gilt 
and  inlaid  with  coloured  glass,  and  certain  stuffs  have 
had  raised  ornament  upon  them,  formed  by  stuffing 
with  wadding  the  applied  pieces,  which  sometimes 
were  embroidered. 

Shaded  or  Painted  Ornament  on  tJie  Flat  in  Imita- 
tion of  Relief ^work. — This  is  probably  the  largest 
class,  and  includes  engraving,  shaded  ornament  in 


METHODS   OF   EXPRESSION  25 

chiaroscuro,  and  shaded  and  coloured  ornament  with 
or  without  cast  shadows ;  in  it  are  included  the 
Chinese,  Persian,  Mediaeval,  and  Renaissance  translu- 
cent enamels,  which  are  laid  over  sunk  (intaglio)  work, 
and  painters'  enamels ;  Boule  work,  which  consists  of 
brass,  tin,  or  pewter,  inlaid  in  ebony  or  tortoiseshell 
with  the  metal-work  engraved  ;  wood  inlay  in  the 
shape  of  shaded  natural  flowers,  landscapes,  architec- 
tural views,  and  figure  subjects ;  shaded  ornament 
on  woven  or  printed  stuffs,  and  embroidery;  and 
shaded  painting  on  china  and  glass,  and  in  Ara- 
besques. What  we  now  call  Arabesques  were  para- 
phrases of  Roman  painted  decoration,  of  which 
Pompeii  offers  us  so  wide  a  knowledge.  These 
decorations  consisted  of  fantastic  buildings,  inter- 
spersed with  figures,  animals,  landscapes,  and  foliage. 
The  discovery  of  this  kind  of  painting  in  the  baths 
of  Titus l  at  Rome  led  Raphael  to  adopt  it  and  to 
improve  on  it.  The  culminating  point  in  Arabesque 
painting  was  the  decoration  of  the  loggias  of  the 
Vatican  by  Raphael  and  his  pupil,  Giovanni  Reca- 
matore,  commonly  known  as  Giovanni  da  Udine. 
The  Mohammedans,  from  whom  the  name  was 
derived,  mostly  avoided  the  figures  of  men  and 
animals,2  even  in  their  secular  buildings  or  furniture, 
it  being  feared  that  the  portrayal  of  living  creatures 
might  lead  them  to  idolatry;  so  spaces  were  filled 
with  intricate  geometrical  patterns  and  coarse  foliage. 

1  The  chambers  under  Titus'  baths  in  which  the  paintings 
were  found,  were  originally  parts  of  Nero's  golden  house. 

2  There  are,  however,  figures  of  men  and  animals  occasion- 
ally found  in  their  carved  wood-work,  tiles,  damascened  work, 
carpets,  and  embroidery. 


CHAPTER   II 

THE  elementary  forms  used  in  ornament  form  the 
next  division.  It  is  assumed  that  the  space 
is  given  that  we  are  required  to  ornament ;  for  example, 
a  ceiling,  a  wall,  a  frieze,  a  panel,  or  a  carpet.  The 
boundary-lines  are  the  enclosing  lines  of  our  space  or 
field,  which  may  be  subdivided.  This  subdividing  is 
called  the  setting-out.  We  have  now  to  think  of  the 
forms  and  character  of  the  ornament  we  propose  to 
adopt. 

It  is  now  advisable  to  give  illustrations  of  the 
various  elementary  forms  used  in  ornament.  As 
lines,  either  straight  or  curved,  are  the  basis  of  all 
ornament,  we  begin  with  the  straight  line.  It  would 
be  difficult  to  overrate  the  value  of  the  straight  line  in 
ornament.  The  qualities  of  stability,  firmness,  and 
repose  given  by  upright  and  horizontal  lines  are  well 
illustrated  by  the  mouldings  round  rectilinear  panels, 
by  cornices  and  pilasters,  and  by  reeded  and  fluted 
ornaments.  All  frets  are  composed  of  straight  lines. 
The  illustrations  from  Fig.  3  to  Fig.  23  are  specimens 
of  straight-lined  ornaments.  Taking  the  band  or  two 
horizontal  parallel  lines  in  Fig.  3,  and  marking  off  equi- 
distant points  on  the  upper  and  on  the  lower  one, 
only  alternating,  and  drawing  vertical  lines  from  these 

26 


ELEMENTARY   FORMS 


27 


points,  we  obtain  the  basis  of  a  large  class  of  frets. 
Figs.  4,  6,  7,  and  8  show  further  developments  of  the 
fret.  Figs.  5  and  18  show  the  elements  of  some 
Saracenic  or  Moresque  frets,  of  which  Figs,  n,  21, 
and  22  are  developments.  Figs.  6,  8,  12,  13,  and  14 


izWH 


E! 

5 

E 

5 

nr 

FIGS.  3  to  7. — Straight-lined  ornaments. 

are  Greek  frets  ;  7  and  20  are  Chinese.  Fig.  9  is  a 
Gothic  nail-head  ornament ;  10  is  of  German  origin  ; 
19  is  a  Japanese  key  pattern  ;  and  Fig.  23  is  derived 
from  the  plaiting  of  rushes,  ribbons,  straws,  or  from 
herring-bone  brick-work,  and  is  common  to  prehistoric 
smd  Byzantine  work. 

Frets  are  more  appropriate  to  flat  surfaces  than  to 


28 


TfiE   PRINCIPLES   OF   ORNAMENT 


concave  or  convex  ones ;  they  may,  however,  be  used 
on  slightly  concave  surfaces,  such  as  the  inside  bevels 
of  plates  or  dishes  ;  then  their  vertical  lines  will 
compose  well,  by  radiating  from  the  centre  of  the 
plate.  The  square  within  square,  and  double  and 
single  frets,  shown  at  Figs.  8  and  15,  were  often 


FIGS.  8  to  n. — Straight-lined  ornaments. 

used  in  conjunction  by  the  Greeks,  and  earlier  by  the 
Egyptians,  on  the  ceilings  of  their  tombs  (Fig.  16), 
both  singly,  and  alternating  with  spirals  and  circular 
ornaments.  (See  Fig.  43.) 

The  zigzag  is  another  straight-lined  form  largely 
used  as  ornament ;  it  was  used  by  the  Egyptians  and 
Early  Greeks  as  the  symbol  of  water  (Figs.  28,  165).* 

Lozenges   and    diamonds   are   other   elements   of 


ELEMENTARY   FORMS;   FRETS 


29 


straight-lined  ornament,  and  form  the  basis  of  many 
repeating  patterns  in  woven  stuffs,  paper-hangings, 
and  tiles.  Triangles,  squares,  hexagons,  octagons, 


1 

1 

ararmraj 


14 

FIGS.  12  to  14. — Greek  frets. 


1 

••••• 
mmmm 

EL 


15  . 

FIG.  15.— Fret  and  panel  border,  Greek. 

and  other   polygons  are  also  used    largely   as  con- 
structive bases  in  pattern-designing. 


30  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF    ORNAMENT 

After  the  straight  line,  the  curved  is  the  other 
element  in  ornament.  It  is  pre-eminently  the  type  of 
grace,  and  the  "line  of  beauty/'  Whether  seen  in 
the  outline  of  the  cloud,  the  wave,  or  the  rounded 
limb  of  the  human  figure,  the  eye  takes  a  delight  in 


FIG.  16. — Egyptian  ceiling  fret. 

tracing  out  the  flowing  curve.  We  have  closed  curves 
in  such  figures  as  the  circle,  ellipse,  oval,  figure  of 
eight,  and  in  the  vesica  piscis,  or  fish-shape,  the  latter 
being  composed  of  two  arcs  of  a  circle  of  the  same 
radius,  touching  each  other  at  their  opposite  ex- 
tremities. The  parabola,  hyperbola,  &c.,  are  open 
curves ;  such  figures  as  the  meander  (Fig.  29),  the 


ELEMENTARY   FORMS;   CURVED    LINES        31 

spiral  (Fig.  24),  the  scroll  (Fig.  25),  and  the  swag  or 
festoon  (Fig.  27),  are  also  open  curves.  When  the 
festoon  is  formed  of  links  and  hangs  like  a  chain  from 
two  points,  it  is  called  a  catenary,  and  is  practically 
identical  with  the  lines  of  festoons  and  the  loopings 
of  drapery. 


18 


FIGS.  17  to  20. — Straight-lined  ornaments. 


In  the  illustrations,  we  have  at  Fig.  30  circles 
touching  each  other  ;  this  is  the  framework  of  some 
diapers  and  repeating  forms.  Next  we  come  to 
circles  intersecting  each  other.  Fig.  31  is  a  pattern 


32  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   ORNAMENT 

common  alike  to  Saracenic,  Egyptian,  and  Japanese 
diapers.  Fig.  32  is  a  border  ornament  of  the  same 
pattern  with  a  centre. 


FIGS.  21  to  23. — Straight-lined  ornaments. 


An  effective  disc  border,  like  that  made  by  savage 
tribes  from  cut  shells,  is  shown  at  Fig.  33,  and  a 
development  of  the  latter  is  that  of  Fig.  34,  taken 


FIGS.  24,  25. — Spiral  and  Scroll. 

from  Assyrian  tesserae,  small  oblong  pieces  of  stone 
or  metal,  on  which  the  pattern  was  incised,  and  often 
alternating  with  the  guilloche  (Figs.  37,  38,  39,  and  40). 
The  guilloche  was  an  important  pattern  in  Assyrian 
work,  in  Greek  moulding  decoration,  and  in  their  flat 
painted  ornament, 


ORNAMENT   FROM    THE    CIRCLE  33 


D  E. 

FIG.  26,  A,  B,  C,  D,  E.— Scale-work  (imbricated). 


FIG.  27. — Festoon  (catenary). 


FIG.  28.— Zigzag. 


FIG.  29. — Meander. 


D 


34 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


Figs.  35  and  36  are  further  examples  of  ornament 
obtained  from  the  circle  and  its  segments  ;  the  former 
being  the  Gothic  ball-flower.  Imbricated  or  scale 
ornament  was  much  used  for  roofs,  to  ornament  small 
columns  and  circular  mouldings.  Examples  are 
given  at  Fig.  26,  A,  B,  and  C. 


35  36 

FIGS.  30  to  36. — Ornaments  mostly  derived  from  the  circle. 

We  now  pass  from  the  circle  to  the  spiral,1  from 
which  a  great  part  of  ornamental  forms  are  derived. 

Fig.  41  is  an  Egyptian  wave  scroll,  and  42  is  the 
familiar  Greek  wave.  Fig.  43  is  from  an  Egyptian 
1  Many  of  the  frets  are  woven  spirals. 


GUILLOCHES 


35 


ceiling;    all   these  contain  the  spiral   as  their  chief 
characteristic.     Fig.  44  shows  two   intersecting   me- 


37 


39 


eiomoioic 


FIGS.  37  to  40. — Ornaments  mostly  derived  from  the  circle. 

anders,  47  is  a  scroll  intersected  by  a  meander,  46  is 
an  eccentric  meander,  45  is  the  scroll  or  antispiral 
of  the  cyma  recta,  and  48  is  the  double  spiral  of  the 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


cavetto  decoration.  Fig.  70  is  the  ornament  on  the 
Greek  cyma  reversa  or  ogee,  called  by  the  French 
rais  de  cceur  ;  71  is  a  Roman  variety. 

Fig.  50  shows  the  anatomy  or  centre  lines  of  the 
purely  aesthetic  Greek  pattern  developed  at  Fig.  49. 


3OOO 


44 


45 


46 


47  48 

FIGS.  41  to  48.— Ornaments  chiefly  based  on  spiral  curves. 

Figs.  51  and  52  are  additional  examples.  Fig.  53  is 
one  of  the  scrolls,  and  in  Fig.  54  is  shown  the 
irregular  meanders  and  spiral  curves  forming  the 
stand  for  the  tripod  on  the  roof  of  the  choragic 
monument  of  Lysikrates. 


37 


!/§SwS 

lW\    x-^Tx-v    ^WMs.     ^^ 


52 

FIGS.  49  to  52. — Greek  borders  from  vases. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


a 

o£ 

B 


ERSITTJ 


TRIPOD    STAND 


39 


CHAPTER    III 

THE  laws  of  composition  in  ornament  are  deduced 
from  nature,  but  we  must  look  to  works  of  art 
for  their  proper  application. 

The  laws  that  may  be  deduced  are  numberless,  but 
the  principal  ones  may  be  given  as  follows  : — 

GEOMETRICAL  ARRANGEMENT,  PROPORTION, 
STABILITY,  REPETITION,  CONTRAST,  SYMMETRY, 
RADIATION,  TANGENTIAL  JUNCTION,  REPOSE, 
VARIETY,  SUBORDINATION,  BALANCE,  UNITY, 
SERIES,  GROWTH,  SUPERPOSITION,  FITNESS.  Some 
of  these  are  preliminary  laws;  e.g.  we  cannot  have 
ornament  without  some  geometrical  arrangement^  even 
spots  in  a  line  must  be  set  out  at  regular  distances,  or 
with  a  recurring  element  of  irregularity ;  and  as  every 
nt  and  part  of  it  are  set  out  on  a  geometrical  basis, 
we  cannot  have  good  floral  ornament  without  such 
an  arrangement.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
setting  out  of  the  more  complex  schemes  of  ornament, 
and  besides  this  framework,  a  whole  class  of  orna- 
ment depends  on  geometrical  arrangement.  There 
must  be  harmonic  proportion  between  the  parts  of  the 
ornament,  as  well  as  between  the  enrichment  and  the 
ground,  to  make  ornament  pleasing  ;  this  last  ele- 

40 


LAWS   OF   ORNAMENT  41 

ment  of  proportion  is  generally  called  even  distribu- 
tion, and  is  found  in  all  good  work  ;  at  the  same  time 
it  admits  of  a  variety  of  treatment :  in  some  Indian, 
Chinese,  and  Saracenic  ornament  it  is  painfully  mono- 
tonous, while  in  good  Roman  and  Renaissance  work, 
though  the  law  is  observed,  there  is  such  variety  and 
contrast,  that  it  never  becomes  tiresome.  Ornament 
to  be  satisfactory  must  have  Stability,  and  not  look 
as  if  it  would  fall  down.  After  these  preliminaries, 
Repetition  may  be  looked  on  as  the  first  law ; 
as  anything  repeated  forms  elementary  ornament. 
Contrast  comes  next,  as  the  mere  alternation  of 
upright  and  horizontal  lines  form  a  contrasted  orna- 
ment |  |  |  |  Symmetry  per- 
haps comes  next,  and  is  the  repetition  of  any  form 
on  its  axis ;  even  the  rudest  blot  so  doubled  makes 
ornament.  Radiation  alone  is  the  basis  of  much 
ornament,  and  directly  we  get  as  far  as  the  scroll, 
we  must  have  tangential  junction^  for  broken-backed 
curves  are  hardly  ornament.  Next  comes  Repose  : 
any  decoration  that  seems  to  crawl  is  not  pleasing 
but  distressing.  As  we  advance  we  want  Variety  and 
Subordination.  An  unsymmetrical  ornament  generally 
requires  Balance  ;  Unity  is  necessary  in  any  complex 
system.  Series  adds  a  new  element  by  the  repetition 
at  stated  intervals  of  a  succession  of  different  objects, 
or  of  similar  ones  of  increasing  or  decreasing  size. 
Growth  gives  us  one  of  the  most  vigorous  and  de- 
lightful elements  in  nature,  and  Superposition  may 
be  looked  on  as  the  last  addition  to  ornament  yet 
made  by  man  ;  while  Fitness  may  be  said  to  include 
all  before-mentioned  and  more. 

The   descriptions  just    given   will    serve    for   the 


42  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

definition  of  some  of  the   laws,  but    others   require 
further  explanation. 

Proportion,  by  which  "  harmonic  proportion "  is 
meant,  applies  also  to  the  architectural  features  of  a 
design,  and  is  indispensable  in  designing  borders, 
composed  of  lines  or  mouldings,  and  in  panels.  The 
width  of  such  border,  or  series  of  mouldings,  should 
be  a  proportionate  part  of  the  narrowest  width  of  the 
space  or  panel.  There  are  certain  distances  between 
lines  that  are  more  pleasing  than  others,  and  as  a  rule, 
one  space  should  preponderate.  In  mouldings  the 
same  thing  is  true,  but  in  addition  to  the  spaces,  there 
are  the  projections  and  contours  to  be  studied.  The 
study  of  Greek  profiles  (Figs.  C  and  D,  p.  15)  is  most 
valuable,  though  Greek  mouldings  are  unsuitable  for 
external  work  in  this  climate.  The  methods  of  pro- 
portioning cornices  given  in  Vitruvius  are  useful  (the 
application  of  proportion  to  surfaces  will  be  found 
at  Chap.  IV.). 

Stability. — Instability  is  mostly  found  in  creeping  or 
twining  plants,  put  vertically,  and  not  attached  to  a 
central  stem,  or  to  the  framework  of  the  panel ;  also 
to  bulky  forms  put  on  slight  ones,  that  from  their  size 
seem  unable  to  support  the  weight.  We  know  from 
experience  that  trunks  of  trees  support  the  enormous 
mass  of  branches  and  foliage  above  them  by  their 
solidity,  and  bear  the  strain  of  winds  by  their  strength 
and  the  spread  and  tenacity  of  their  roots.  In  the 
rare  case  in  which  such  an  arrangement  is  wanted  in 
ornament,  we  must  resort  to  some  device,  such  as 
difference  of  texture  between  the  supports  and  the 
mass  above,  to  indicate  superior  supporting  power. 


LAWS    OF    ORNAMENT  43 

Repetition  is  the  first  method  by  which  things  were 
turned  into  ornament,  but  if  it  be  carried  too  far  it 
produces  monotony;  this  may  be  seen  in  a  long 
succession  of  similar  windows  in  factories,  and  the 
endless  rows  of  iron  railings  to  parks.  A  little  more 
thought  would  put  in  proper  places  a  larger  or  more 
ornate  window ;  and  in  the  case  of  railings  would 
afford  a  larger  and  more  important  post  or  a  group 
of  them  :  this  infusion  of  Variety  would  correct  the 
monotonous  appearance,  and  greatly  add  to  the 
pleasure  of  the  beholders.  The  ornaments  on  mould- 
ings, patterns  in  checkers,  net-work,  or  diapers  may 
be  repeated  up  to  a  certain  point  without  being 
tiresome,  but  symbolic  and  distinguishing  forms  must, 
as  a  rule,  be  used  sparingly.  One  human  figure  is 
mostly  enough  in  an  ornamental  panel,  because  the 
figure  absorbs  the  attention,  though  cupids  or  very 
young  children  may  be  repeated  ;  the  former  are 
imaginary  creatures,  and  the  latter  sportive  ones,  but 
even  these  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  compose  with 
the  foliage,  which  should  be  an  open  screen  they 
are  seen  playing  through.  The  difficulty  of  prevent- 
ing even  cupids  from  absorbing  all  interest,  was 
probably  the  cause  of  the  ancients  so  often  making 
them  half-floral. 

Contrast  in  form  or  colour  imparts  vigour  to  the 
composition  ;  the  commonest  illustration  of  contrast 
in  form  is  the  circle  and  the  straight  line,  but'  more 
subtle  contrasts  are  found  in  Nature's  works,  very  flat 
curves  being  contrasted  with  sharp  ones;  and  in  colour, 
besides  the  contrasts  of  the  leaves  and  flowers,  there 
are  often  spots  of  contrasting  colour  on  flowers  to 


44  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

heighten  their  brilliancy,  though  this  is  mostly  effected 
by  the  pistils  and  stamens.  The  "  egg  and  tongue," 
one  of  the  most  effective  ornaments  invented,  has  the 
smooth  curved  eggs  contrasted  with  the  thin  lines  of 
the  shells,  and  the  curved  eggs  with  the  straight  edge 
of  the  tongue.  (Fig.  67.)  Renaissance  and  Roman 
ornament  (see  Fig.  129)  give  the  amplest  illustrations 
of  contrast ;  varieties  of  foliage  contrasting  with  vases, 
labels,  shields,  armour,  masks,  animals,  and  human 
figures.  (See  Figs.  121,  123,  124,  126,  127,  130,  132, 
and  Frontispiece.) 

Symmetry  has  been  defined  before  as  the  mere 
doubling  of  a  form  on  its  axis  ;  it  is  one  of  the  most 
important  means  of  producing  ornament,  as  well  as 
one  of  the  laws  most  commonly  found  in  nature. 
Nothing  in  nature,  however,  is  absolutely  symme- 
trical, though  there  is  a  suggestion  of  symmetry  about 
the  bulk  of  its  works. 

Radiation  is  the  spreading  out  of  lines  from  a  point, 
like  a  fan,  and  these  lines  may  be  straight  or  curved, 
and  the  axis  of  the  radiating  lines  may  be  vertical, 
horizontal,  or  oblique.  It  is  found  in  the  human  hand, 
in  the  wing  feathers  of  birds,  in  the  scallop  and  simi- 
lar bivalve  shells,  in  the  umbels  of  flowers,  and  in  much 
other  plant  growth.  The  Greek  honeysuckle  is  the 
most  beautiful  instance  of  its  adaptation  as  ornament. 
(See  Figs.  49,  50,  51,  52,  and  115.)  If  the  centre  of 
the  radiating  lines  is  kept  below  the  springing  line, 
it  adds  greatly  to  the  interest  and  beauty  of  the 
ornament.  A  succession  of  festoons  or  of  drapery 
hanging  from  two  points  are  examples  of  one  species 
of  curved  radiation. 


LAWS   OF    ORNAMENT  45 

Tangential  Junction. — Euclid's  definition  of  a  tan- 
gent is  as  follows  : — "  A  straight  line  is  said  to  touch 
a  circle,  when  it  meets  the  circle,  and  being  produced 
does  not  cut  it,"  and  is  obtained  by  drawing  a  line 
perpendicular  to  any  radius  from  the  point  at  which 
it  touches  the  circumference.  In  ornament,  tangen- 
tial junction  means  that  where  two  curves  of  opposite 
curvature  meet  they  are  to  meet  at  the  tangential 
points  of  each  (Fig.  25),  and  in  the  case  of  a  curve  being 
continued  by  a  straight  line,  the  point  of  junction  is 
the  tangential  point.  A  curve,  however,  should  never 
be  continued  by  a  straight  line,  but  by  a  flatter  curve. 
The  beauty  imparted  by  following  this  rule  is  seen  in 
the  Ionic  capitals  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo  at  Bassse, 
where  the  two  volutes  are  joined  by  a  curve  instead  of 
by  the  usual  straight  line  (see  Fig.  179  in  Appendix). 

Repose. — The  absence  of  a  look  of  motion  in  orna- 
ment ;  this  appearance  of  motion  may  be  seen  in 
some  flamboyant  tracery  and  Saracenic  patterns,  in 
some  modern  paper-hangings, and  in  patterns  in  woven 
and  printed  stuffs.  The  word  repose  is  sometimes 
used  to  denote  an  absence  of  spottiness.  In  the  best 
pilaster  panels,  horizontal  lines  are  introduced  partly 
for  contrast,  and  partly  to  give  repose  by  checking 
the  appearance  of  motion  in  the  curved  plant  forms. 
(Fig.  127.) 

Variety  is  a  difference  of  form  or  arrangement  in 
the  ornament  from  that  which  immediately  precedes 
or  follows  it.  In  nature  we  see  that  every  leaf  varies 
from  every  other  by  subtle  differences,  though  the 
foliage  is  roughly  alike,  and  it  is  for  this  reason  that 


46  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

Nature's  works  never  pall  upon  us.  General  similarity 
with  slight  variety  is  the  most  proper  for  the  highest 
and  most  dignified  ornament.  In  other  cases  absolute 
variety  is  permissible.  Variety  is  the  salt  of  ornament 
that  takes  off  the  insipidity  of  repetition. 

Subordination. — The  state  of  being  inferior  to 
another,  a  regular  descending  series.  In  any  complex 
system  of  ornament,  one  part  should  be  chosen  as  the 
most  important,  and  all  the  rest  should  lead  up  to  it ; 
but  certain  distinct  parts,  such  as  masses  or  flowers, 
may  re-echo  in  a  fainter  way  the  main  motive.  In 
drawing,  subordination  is  obtained  by  the  principal 
mass  being  larger  than  the  rest,  and  by  its  details 
being  larger  and  more  pronounced ;  in  painting,  by  the 
above  and  by  the  principal  part  being  more  vivid  in 
colour  ;  in  modelling,  by  greater  size  and  relief.  The 
Romans  and  Cinque  Cento  artists  were  great  masters 
of  this  art.  In  some  panels,  though  the  highest  relief 
is  not  great,  there  is  an  infinity  of  gradation,  the 
lowest  relief  gradually  sinking  into  the  ground.  In  a 
Renaissance  bas-relief  of  a  full  face  the  greatest  pro- 
jection is  about  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch,  and  yet  the 
face  is  perfectly  modelled.  Modern  English  carved 
ornament  is  too  frequently  deficient  in  this  quality. 

Balance. — The  making  unsymmetrical  masses  of 
equal  weight.  In  the  creations  of  nature  we  see 
balance  employed  in  trees,  shrubs,  and  plants  (Fig. 
1 60)  ;  in  leaves,  made  as  it  were  on  a  symmetrical  basis, 
balance  is  equally  employed.  In  simple  oval  leaves, 
for  example,  one  side  is  more  convex  than  the  other, 
and  the  balance  is  got  by  the  curve  in  the  rib. 


LAWS   OF   ORNAMENT  47 

Unity,  is  the  completeness  of  any  system  of  orna- 
ment not  marred  by  incongruous  elements  or  forms. 

Series  is  the  repetition  of  a  limited  succession  of 
different  forms :  in  the  egg  and  tongue,  of  two  ;  in 
the  bead  and  reel,  of  three ;  in  branches  of  plants 
when  the  leaves  regularly  diminish  in  size,  of  many. 
(Fig.  67.)  Long  series  may  be  seen  in  Saracenic 
ornament,  where  the  same  text  is  repeated  sometimes 
with  ornament  between  the  texts. 

Growth. — This  is  at  once  the  rarest  and  most 
delightful  of  the  hints  taken  from  nature  by  great 
ornamentalists.  In  climbing  plants,  whose  stalks  are 
polygonal,  and  that  twist  to  reach  an  object,  or  for 
the  flowers  to  get  the  sun,  the  edges  of  the  stalk  are 
seen  to  form  a  spiral.  Sometimes  this  vigour  of 
growth  is  seen  in  the  turn  of  a  leaf  or  the  clasp  of  a 
tendril  round  a  twig.  The  capitals  and  the  tripod 
stand  of  the  choragic  monument  of  Lysikrates  are 
good  examples.  (Figs.  53  and  54.) 

Superposition. — This  is  most  frequently  seen  in 
Saracenic  ornament,  but  it  is  also  found  in  Renais- 
sance ornament.  The  simplest  form  is  in  the  case  of 
meanders  of  different  curvature  when  one  is  put  over 
the  other,  the  upper  one  being  more  vigorous  in  form 
and  colour.  The  next  case  is  where  larger  ornaments 
of  a  more  striking  colour  are  put  over  a  smaller  and 
less  obtrusive  pattern,  as  in  the  Persian  windows  of 
the  Suleimanyeh  at  Constantinople  ;  but  the  com- 
monest case  is  that  of  inscriptions  over  floral  orna- 
ment, examples  of  which  are  without  number  in 
Saracenic  work.  This,  like  nearly  all  other  inven- 


48  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

tions  in  ornament,  is  taken  from  nature.  We  see 
twining  or  creeping  plants  overgrowing  trees  or 
bushes,  and  parasitical  plants  overgrowing  others, 
from  which  they  get  their  sustenance,  and  have 
therefore  roots,  stems,  and  flowers,  but  no  leaves. 
Saracenic  diapers  frequently  have  many  planes 
superposed,  and  as  each  pattern  is  differently  coloured 
and  gilt,  any  change  of  position  in  the  beholder 
brings  out  a  new  pattern.  This  may  be  seen  in  the 
Alhambra  Court  at  the  Crystal  Palace.  (Fig.  101.) 

Fitness^  in  its  most  obvious  sense,  is  arranging  the 
ornament  so  that  it  may  not  interfere  with  the  proper 
use  of  the  thing  ornamented.  The  enrichment  of  a 
sword-hilt  must  not  hurt  the  hand,  nor  render  the 
proper  wielding  of  the  sword  difficult  or  impossible  ; 
and  the  same  canon  applies  to  the  handles  of  flagons, 
jugs,  or  drinking  vessels,  &c. ;  in  a  secondary  sense 
it  is  a  due  consideration  of  the  qualities  of  the 
material  to  be  ornamented,  and  of  the  appropriateness 
of  the  ornament  to  the  purpose  for  which  the  article 
is  intended  ;  and  thirdly,  it  supposes  a  well-ordered 
design,  whose  completeness  would  be  marred  by 
anything  being  added  or  removed. 

The  want  of  what  is  called  "alternation  "  in  design 
is  analogous  to  a  surface  that  is  so  elaborately  decor- 
ated with  a  uniform  repeating  pattern  that  it  is 
wearisome  to  look  at. 

The  value  of  plain  spaces  in  design  is  enormous. 
Charles  Lamb,  in  one  of  his  delightful  letters  to 
Coleridge,  says  in  finishing — "  I  will  leave  you,  in 
mercy,  one  small  white  spot  empty  below,  to  repose 
your  eyes  upon,  fatigued  as  they  must  be  with  the 


LAWS   OF   ORNAMENT  49 

wilderness  of  words  they  have  by  this  time  painfully 
travelled  through."  To  the  designer  this  analogy 
will  be  obvious  and  useful. 

Plain  spaces  as  alternations  in  design,  are  the  oases 
in  the  desert,  and  may  be  compared  to  a  refreshing 
silence  after  a  continuous  chatter  or  deafening  noise. 

It  is  easier  to  do  too  much  than  to  know  exactly 
where  to  stop.  Excess  of  ornament  defeats  its  own 
end,  there  is  no  foil  to  set  it  off,  and  it  must  be 
guarded  against.  The  Saracens,  by  the  relative  weight 
of  their  ornament,  have  to  some  extent  obviated  this 
objection.  To  know  the  value  of  plainness  is  to 
enhance  the  ornament  used.  To  have  this  vividly 
brought  home  to  you,  the  best  Greek  architecture 
should  be  compared  with  late  Roman.  In  the  Greek 
you  see  a  very  small  quantity  of  exquisite  ornament 
surrounded  by  plainness,  which  makes  it  doubly 
precious;  in  late  Roman,  every  surface  is  covered 
without  a  spot  to  rest  the  eye  on,  so  that  the  whole 
becomes  dull,  confused,  and  monotonous. 


E 


CHAPTER   IV 

BEFORE  speaking  of  the  decoration  of  mouldings, 
a  few  words  must  be  said  on  the  mouldings 
themselves.     The  Greeks  were  the  first  people  who 
carried  the  art  of  moulding  or  profiling  to  any  per- 
fection, and  they  are  still  supreme  ;  they  mainly  used 
straight-lined  sections  for  strength,  but  added  a  few 
curved  sections    to  prevent   monotony.     The   air  of 
Greece  is  pellucid  and  the  sunshine  brilliant,  so  for 
their   curved    sections   those   that    approximated    to 
conic  sections  were  preferred  as  having  more  subtle 
shade,  segments  of  circles  being  rarely  used.     (See 
Figs.  6 1 — 64.)     The  greatest   efforts   were  made   to 
have  these  mouldings  as  exquisite  as  possible,  so  as 
to  get  variety  of  shade  and  shadow,  and  mouldings 
of  the  same  species  were  rarely  or  never  alike.     The 
Romans,  who  had  much  coarser  artistic  sensibilities 
than  the  Greeks,  and  were  slaves  to  easy  rules,  used 
segments  of  circles  for  their  mouldings  instead  of  the 
Greek  curves.    (See  Figs.  55 — 66.)    They  also  had  an 
atmosphere  less  clear,  and  their  sunshine  was  not  so 
brilliant.     The  Mediaevals,  who  lived  in  misty  climates 
with  little  sunshine,  were  as  logical  in  their  methods, 
but  were  not  possessed  of  the  artistic  sensibilities  of 
the  Greeks,  so,  although  their  mouldings  answer  the 


ROMAN    MOULDINGS 


55.  Ovolo. 


56.  Cavetto. 


57.  Ogee,  or  cyma  reversa. 


58.  Cyma  recta. 


59.  Scotia.  60.  Torus. 

FIGS.  55  to  60. — Profiles  of  Roman  mouldings  with  their  fillets. 


63.  Ogee,  or  cyma  reversa. 


64.  Cyma  recta. 


6S-  Scotia.  66.  Torus> 

Fies.  61  to  66.— Profiles  of  Greek  mouldings  with  their  fillets. 


GREEK   MOULDINGS 


53 


purpose,  they  lack  refinement.  The  Mediaevals  got 
their  effects  by  deep  undercutting,  and  by  putting 
fillets  or  leaving  arrises  on  such  parts  as  were  to  tell 
bright ; — Classic  and  Renaissance  mouldings,  however, 
are  alone  treated  of  here. 


In  the  best  periods  of  ancient  art  it  was  the  invari- 
able custom  to  adopt  a  form  nearly  like  the  profile  or 
section  of  the  moulding,  and  to  double  it  for  the  basis 
of  its  decoration,  and  nothing  could  produce  a  more 


54 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


pleasing  and  artistic  result,  for  then  the  moulding 
never  lost  its  character,  however  elaborately  it  might 
be  enriched.  The  diagrams  from  Figs.  67  to  78  will 
help  to  illustrate  this :  for  instance,  at  Fig.  67  we 
have  the  Greek  ovolo,  ornamented  with  eggs,  called 


FIG.  70. — The  Greek  ogee  with  water  leaf  ornament. 

by  the  Greeks  "turnip  stones,"  which  resemble  the 
section  of  the  moulding  doubled  ;  at  70  and  73  the 
Greek  ogee  is  shown  with  the  water  leaf  ornament 


FIG.  yi.-^Roman  variety  of  the  ornament  on  the  ogee. 

used  to  enrich  it,  for  which  we  have  no  distinctive 
name— it  is  called  by  the  French  "  Rais  de  Cceury" 
and  resembles  the  section  of  the  moulding  doubled  ; 
at  71  is  a  Roman  variation  of  this  ornament ;  at  68, 
a  Roman  cavetto,  or  hollow  ;  at  69,  a  "  cyma  recta." 
Fig.  77  is  a  curved  "astragal"  or  bead  moulding; 


GREEK   MOULDINGS 


55 


and  at  Fig.  78  is  the  bead  and  reel  ornament.  (See 
also  Figs.  72  and  73  for  examples  of  Greek  bead  and 
reel  ornament.)  Figs.  74,  75,  and  76  are  examples  of 
ornament  used  for  flat  bands  or  fascias.  When  these 
are  sunk  with  semi-circular  or  elliptical  channels  they 
are  called  "  fluted,"  and  when  raised  in  relief  "  reeded." 


FIG.  72  — Decorated  mouldings  from  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at  Athens,  ogee 
ovolo,  and  beads. 

We  may  next  briefly  speak  of  the  ornamental 
treatment  of  floors,  walls,  and  ceilings. 

Beginning  with  the  floor,  it  must  be.  remembered 
that  in  floor  decoration  the  sense  of  flatness  should 
be  preserved  ;  raised  and  especially  angular  surfaces 
are  to  be  avoided,  and  what  is  unpleasant  to  use  is 
unpleasant  to  be  suggested  for  use,  though  the 
Assyrians  used  relief  on  their  floors.  Whether  the 


57 


74.  From  Jupiter  Tonans. 


75.  From  the  Forum  of  Nerva. 


76.  From  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Stator. 
FIGS.  74  to  76. — Fluted  ornaments. 


. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


decoration  be  obtained  by  carpets,  rugs,  floor-cloth, 
inlaid  marble  or  metal,  mosaic,  tiles,  or  parquetry, 
nothing  should  be  introduced  to  disturb  the  flatness, 


76  A.  76  B. 

FIGS.  76  A  and  76  B. — Reeded  ornaments  for  flat  bands. 

by  shading  the  forms  or  by  imitating  mouldings,  or  a 
ridge  and  furrow.     All  realistic  renderings  of  animals 


FIG.  77. — Astragal  or  bead  moulding. 


FIG.  78.— Bead  and  reel. 


or  plants  should  be  carefully  avoided.  The  colour 
may  be  varied,  but  evenly  distributed,  and  mostly 
sober;  though  the  Romans  sometimes  used  lapis 


FLOOR   DECORATIONS 


59 


lazuli  for  their  floors,  or  encrusted  them  with  gems, 
and  the  Byzantines  used  gold  or  silver  chased  and 
enriched  with  niello.  Mosaic  work  applied  to  floors 
was  an  early  form  of  decoration,  and  is  still  of  a  high 
order  in  the  scale  of  floor  decorations,  the  highest 


FIG.  79.— Opus  Alexandrinum  from  a  pavement  in  the  Church  of  San 
Marco  (Rome). 

being  marble  inlaid  with  other  marbles  or  with 
mastic,  like  those  in  the  Baptistery  at  Florence  and 
the  Cathedral  at  Siena.  The  use  of  marble  or  tiles 
in  this  country  is  limited  to  the  floors  of  museums, 
baths,  halls  and  passages ;  on  account  of  their 
coldness,  they  cannot  be  used  with  comfort  in 


60  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

ordinary  rooms.  Mosaic  may  be  treated  with  borders 
and  lines  like  the  framing  of  a  picture,  with  the  field 
(or  central  space)  either  plain,  powdered  with  spots  of 
decoration,  or  covered  with  a  pattern.  Black  and 
white  is  the  most  dignified  treatment.  If  other 
colours  are  used,  black  with  pale  red  or  cream  colour, 
or  low-toned  reds,  greens,  greys,  and  yellows  are  to 
be  preferred.  Opus  Alexandrinum  is  one  of  the  most 
magnificent  floor  decorations  yet  used  ;  rectangular  or 
circular  slabs  of  porphyry  are  surrounded  with  bands 
composed  of  geometrical  figures  in  purple,  green,  and 
black  porphyry,  on  a  white  marble  ground,  though 
marble  occasionally  takes  the  place  of  porphyry  in 
the  smaller  geometrical  patterns.  (See  Fig.  79.) 

Floor-cloths  and  linoleums  are  of  modern  introduc- 
tion. The  decoration  of  these  coverings  is  best  when 
it  is  of  subdued  colours  treated  flatly. 

In  carpets,  the  pattern  should,  as  a  rule,  radiate 
from  geometric  points  ;  at  least  the  more  important 
spots  should  be  on  a  circular,  lozenge,  or  square  basis, 
so  that  the  eye  should  not  be  carried  in  one  particular 
direction.  If  animals  are  used,  they  should  have  a 
simple  outline,  and  should  be  treated  flatly.  Realistic 
flowers,  birds,  human  figures,  landscapes,  and  architec- 
ture are  out  of  place  on  carpets.  A  border  always 
improves  a  carpet,  if  properly  designed  to  harmonize 
with  the  centre,  or  to  enhance  its  value. 

Walls  may  be  decorated  with  metals  or  marbles  ; 
with  wood  panelling,  either  plain,  moulded,  inlaid, 
carved  or  incised  ;  with  plaster  flatly  embossed  or 
sunk,  or  in  which  stones,  shells  or  looking-glass,  &c.  is 
embedded;  with  plain  colour,  with  painted  or  stencilled 
patterns  ;  with  furs  or  feather  work ;  with  hangings  of 


WALL   COVERINGS 


61 


velvet,  satin,  silk,  or  calico,  either  plain,  enriched,  or 
embroidered ;  by  tapestry,  matting,  stamped  leather  or 


/      \i/      \i/      Vl/      v 

O          0          0          0 

)   0   O   0  0 

o       o       o       o 

)   0    O   O   C 

O          0          O          0 

)   0    0   0   C 

o       o      o       o 

)    ©    0    0   C 

o       o      o       o 

"\      /7\       CTN      /7v       /" 

~  O  -*-  O  —  *~O  -*-0"* 

-~d-^-o  -*vo-«-o~ 

•^•0  ^*-O^*wO  -*»0— 

--  0-*-  0—*-  O-*-O- 

-^0-^6~<"-»r   O  -VO- 

80 


i 

O 

1 

0 

I 

Q 

i 

0 

0 

i 

0 

J 

I 

1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

{ 

1 

I 

j 

0 

0 

i 

o 

\ 

0 

82  83 

FIGS.  80  to  83. — Improper  arrangements  for  wall-papers  or  room  decoration. 

its  imitations,  and  by  paper-hangings.  If  pictures  are 
to  be  hung  on  a  wall,  it  is  obvious  that  a  low-toned 
decoration,  that  will  set  them  off,  is  alone  admis- 
sible ;  since  the  pictures  themselves  are  the  principal 
decoration,  the  walls  should  be  treated  as  an  un- 
obtrusive background.  The  best  decoration  for 
appearance  after  simple  colour  or  a  painted  pattern 
is  silk  or  woven  stuffs.1  If  paper-hangings  be  chosen, 

1  There  is,  however,  a  strong  objection,  from  a  sanitary  point 
of  view,  to  the  use  of  absorbent  hangings,  especially  when  the 
surface  is  rough,  for  they  not  only  absorb  infection,  but  hold  dust, 
which  generally  contains  the  germs  of  disease. 


62 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


they  should  have  a  uniform  pattern  and  be  free  from 
spots ;  for  the  eye  should  not  be  arrested  by  any 
particular  form,  nor  be  forcibly  carried  in  any  direc- 
tion. In  illustration  of  this,  we  may  suppose  the 
diagrams,  Figs.  80,  81,  82,  and  83,  to  represent 
decorated  wall  spaces.  All  these  decorative  arrange- 
ments are  bad  as  wall-coverings ;  but  by  combining 
their  elements,  at  Fig.  84  a  tolerably  good  paper- 
hanging  is  produced  that  will  form  a  background  for 
furniture  and  pictures. 


FIG.  84. — Arrangement  for  the  lines  of  a  wall-paper. 

The  diagram,  Fig.  80,  arrests  the  eye;  81  and  82 
tend  to  exaggerate  the  height  or  breadth  of  the 
room  ;  for  patterns  in  which  vertical  or  horizontal 
lines  predominate  will  have  the  effect  of  lengthening 
or  widening  the  surface  of  the  wall ;  whilst  the  dia- 
gram 83,  being  composed  of  oblique  lines,  will  not 
only  give  a  look  of  weakness  to  the  wall,  but  will 
lead  the  eye  from  one  corner  of  the  room  to  the 
other.  A  pattern,  to  be  satisfactory  as  a  background, 
should  neither  arrest  the  eye  nor  carry  it  in  any 
particular  direction. 

The  height  of  a  real  dado  generally  depends  on 
the  height  of  the  chair-backs,  but  it  may  be  influenced 
by  the  height  of  the  ceiling,  and  partly  by  the  use  to 


CEILING   DECORATIONS 


which  the  room   is  put ;    high  wainscoting  prevents 
small-sized  pictures  from  being  seen.    If  the  wainscot 


87 

FIGS.  85  to  87. — Fillings  of  ceilings  showing  various  schemes  of  all-over  effects. 

be  higher  than  the  centre  of  the  wall,  the  upper  part 
of  the  wall  may  have  a  stronger  decoration  with  a 
more  flowing  pattern  than  would  be  admissible  on  a 


64 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


CEILING   DIVISIONS  65 

wall  with  lower  wainscoting.  If  there  be  a  frieze  in 
the  room,  a  still  freer  and  more  pictorial  treatment 
may  be  allowed  on  it.  The  Greeks  called  the  frieze 
Zoophoros,  or  life-bearing,  because  it  was  generally 


FIG.  89. — Ceiling  from  Serlio's  architecture. 

adorned  with  figures  of  men  or  animals.  Wall  spaces 
need  not  be  panelled  in  small  rooms,  as  the  window- 
openings,  doors,  and  fireplaces  mostly  break  up  the 
space  sufficiently.  If  the  rooms,  though  small,  are 
high,  a  dado  and  a  frieze  are  improvements.  On 
ceilings  there  is  more  room  for  variety  and  elabora- 

F 


66  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

tion.  There  are  many  ways  of  decorating  ceilings. 
We  may  take  the  cornice  as  the  frame,  and  regard 
the  ceiling  as  the  space  to  decorate  ;  the  simplest 
way  is  to  powder  it  (Fig.  85),  or  to  cover  it  over  with 
a  scroll-work  pattern  (Fig.  86).  An  effective  treatment 
consists  in  lightly  covering  the  field  with  a  pattern 
steadied  by  labels,  shields,  or  medallions  (Fig.  87). 

In  dividing  a  ceiling  into  panels,  either  by  painting 
or  by  relief  work,  the  centre  panel  or  compartment 
should  generally  be  larger  than  any  of  the  others 
(see  Fig.  89,  and  92  at  B),  though  there  are  excellent 
Renaissance  ceilings  divided  into  equal  panels.  When 
the  ceiling  is  unequally  divided,  the  spaces  should  be 
in  harmonic  proportion,  so  that  no  two  series  of 
panels  shall  be  the  same  width ;  this,  however,  does 
not  apply  to  the  widths  of  the  stiles  and  rails,  which 
should  be  alike.  Figs.  88  and  89  show  such  arrange- 
ments. Care  must  be  taken  in  designing  the  sub- 
divisions of  ceilings  that  the  panels,  interspaces,  and 
mouldings  are  well  contrasted.  A  safe  guide  for  the 
designer  in  obtaining  the  requisite  proportions  is  to 
be  found  in  the  Roman  ceilings,  although  those  of 
which  drawings  are  preserved  were  mostly  vaulted. 
For  flat  ceilings,  good  examples  may  be  studied  of 
the  best  period  of  Italian  Renaissance  (Fig.  88),  and 
in  both  cases  the  mouldings  of  the  panels  are  usually 
given.  Where  a  ceiling  to  be  decorated  is  divided 
by  beams,  the  panelling,  if  admissible,  should  be 
repeated  in  the  different  compartments.  Ceilings  of 
corridors  or  long  rooms  may  be  harmonically  divided 
across  at  discretion. 

Relief  work  or  modelled  ornament  on  ceilings 
should  be  so  regulated  that  the  light  from  windows 


CEILING    DECORATION  67 

or  from  artificial  illumination  should  cause  little  cast 
shadow,  only  enough  to  define  the  outline ;  the  forms 
should  be  carefully  rounded  off  in  the  more  important 
masses  to  lessen  the  abruptness  of  cast  shadow.  A 
preponderance  of  light  in  the  larger  masses,  connected 
and  softened  by  lower  tones,  is  commonly  adopted. 

On  the  carved  surface  itself,  the  play  of  light  and 
shade  should  be  quite  secondary,  and  not  compete  in 
strength  with  the  deeper  shadows  cast  by  the  orna- 
ment on  its  ground.  If  this  be  not  attended  to, 
confusion  and  obscurity  are  apt  to  be  produced. 

A  nice  balancing  of  light  and  shade  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  in  relief  ornament.  It  may  here 
be  remarked,  that  for  outdoor  work  in  a  sunny  climate, 
a  lower  relief  in  the  carving  and  more  delicacy  in  the 
mouldings  is  admissible,  than  in  a  misty  one  like 
ours,  where  strong  sunlight  rarely  occurs  ;  and  for 
this  reason  a  bolder  treatment  of  relief  is  necessary, 
which  allows  of  a  coarser  material  being  used.  Before 
leaving  the  subject  of  relief  ornament,  it  would  be  as 
well  to  state,  that  no  carved  decoration  should  be 
fastened  on  to  a  ceiling  or  panel,  but  should  be 
worked  out  of  the  material  itself;  and  also  that 
where  human  figures  are  used  on  ceilings,  they  must 
be  so  arranged  as  to  be  seen  from  the  heads  at  the 
most  important  point  in  the  room  ;  seen  from  the 
feet  the  figures  appear  to  be  upside  down. 


CHAPTER   V 

IN  setting  out  spaces  for  decoration  the  chief  aim 
should  be  to  get  them  in  harmonic  proportion. 
The  Greeks  were  the  great  masters  of  this  art,  the 
most  subtle  proportions  being  chosen  by  them,  but 
there  is  not  space  here  to  enter  into  refinements. 
Roughly  speaking,  the  proportion  of  if  to  I  is  fairly 
agreeable ;  when  the  space  required  approaches  a 
double  square,  it  looks  better  if  it  somewhat  exceeds 
or  falls  short  of  that  figure.  As  a  rule,  a  marked 
preponderance  in  the  height  or  length  should  be 
given  to  every  oblong  used  in  decoration,  and  with 
those  rough  rules,  an  educated  eye  can  mostly,  after 
a  few  trials,  obtain  harmonious  proportions.  Those 
forms  about  which  there  is  an  uncertainty  always 
look  feeble  and  unsatisfactory,  e.g.  an  oblong  that 
approaches  the  square,  or  an  ellipse  that  approaches 
a  circle.  In  the  case  of  the  square  there  should  be 
no  doubt  about  its  being  a  square,  so  it  is  necessary 
that  the  ornamentation  chosen  be  calculated  to  em- 
phasize the  shape  and  not  give  it  the  appearance  of 
an  oblong,  i.  e.  the  ornament  should  be  symmetrical  on 
both  the  axes,  and  it  is  often  useful  to  accentuate 
the  corners  as  well ;  if  the  square  be  surrounded  by 

68 


PROPORTION,    ETC.  69 

a  border  it  is  sometimes  advisable  to  strengthen  its 
corners  by  knees.  If  this  be  done  it  is  necessary  to 
have  them  at  the  four  corners  ;  if  they  be  applied  to 
the  two  upper  or  the  two  under  corners,  the  square 
will  be  taken  for  an  oblong.  The  repetition  of  squares 
is  much  more  endurable  than  a  repetition  of  similar 
oblongs.  A  common  case  of  the  monotonous  effect 
of  similar  oblong  panels  is  to  be  seen  in  a  four- 
panelled  door  with  the  middle  rail  in  the  centre,  so 
the  middle  rail  is  commonly  put  below  the  centre  to 
get  variety  in  the  panels.  Even  in  so  graceful  a 
form  as  the  human  figure,  sculptors  rarely  represent 
it  in  a  perfectly  symmetrical  attitude,  particularly 
in  bas-relief,  unless  it  be  to  express  some  marked 
emotion,  or  for  the  sake  of  the  composition  ;  there 
are,  however,  a  few  figures  in  front  view,  symmetrically 
arranged,  that  form  the  centres  of  ornamental  com- 
positions :  the  front  view  of  animals  in  bas-relief  is 
still  less  admissible.  The  circle  is  by  far  the  most 
beautiful  and  useful  closed  curve,  but  it  is  not  always 
available,  as  in  the  case  of  a  central  feature  in  a  very 
long  ceiling  or  in  oblong  panels,  and  its  place  must 
be  then  supplied  by  an  ellipse,  which  has  this  merit, 
that  its  proportions  are  infinite,  the  straight  line 
and  the  circle  being  only  extreme  cases  of  the  ellipse ; 
but  when  the  choice  is  unfettered  the  long  (major) 
axis  should  so  far  exceed  the  short  (minor)  as  to 
afford  a  contrast ;  an  ellipse  that  differs  but  slightly 
from  the  circle  too  much  resembles  one  that  is  ill- 
drawn.  When  an  ellipse  is  placed  with  the  long 
axis  vertical,  which  is  sometimes  necessary  in  oblong 
panels,  looking-glasses,  &c.,  it  should  be  tied  to  the 
vertical  and  horizontal  framework  to  prevent  an 


;o 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG  90.— Vase  by  Stevens  showing  unequal  divisions  of  the  height,  and 
strengthening  horizontal  bands. 

appearance  of  instability,  and  when   this  cannot  be 
done  it  should  be  supported  by  foliage. 


VASE    DECORATION  71 

In  horizontally  dividing  objects  circular  in  plan 
and  curved  in  section,  such  as  vases,  with  lines  or 
bands,  several  things  have  to  be  considered.  The 
lines  themselves  have  a  strengthening  effect,  but  the 
question  is  where  they  are  best  applied  :  if  the  curves 
of  the  object  vary  considerably,  the  points  at  which 
the  variations  begin  are  the  proper  places,  and  in  this 
case,  as  in  all  others,  variety  and  the  predominance  of 
one  division  are  to  be  adopted  ;  if,  however,  the  vase 


FIG.  91. — Vase  showing  unequal  divisions  of  the  height,  and 
strengthening  horizontal  bands. 

is  to  be  decorated,  the  predominant  space  for  the 
most  important  decoration  must  be  placed  where  the 
curve  is  nearly  uniform,  or  else  the  ornament  will  be 
distorted.  The  Greek  painted  vases,  with  a  few  ex- 
ceptions, are  the  best  examples  of  excellence  in  their 
divisions  (Figs.  90  and  91).  Due  consideration  must 
also  be  given  to  the  placing  of  the  vase  ;  some  of  the 
Greek  vases,  intended  to  stand  on  the  ground,  have 
the  main  ornament  confined  to  the  shoulder. 


72 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


In  the  division  of  objects  in  the  round,  it  is  a 
general  rule  that  they  should  not  be  divided  in  the 
middle,  but  that  the  upper  or  under  part  should  be 
distinctly  predominant,  and  that  the  two  parts  should 
be  different.  There  is,  however,  an  exception  to  this 
rule,  for  when  certain  objects  are  wanted  to  be 


FIG.  92. — Panelling  of  ceilings  showing  at  A  a  bad,  and  at  B  a  better  arrangement. 

symmetrical  on  their  horizontal  axes,  the  upper  and 
under  forms  should  then  be  identical,  e.g.  in  the 
case  of  certain  vases,  candlesticks,  and  balusters. 

In  the  case  of  ornamental  objects  whose  outline 
is  a  matter  of  taste,  such  as  finger-plates,  care  must 
be  taken  that  they  neither  have  a  weak  outline 
wholly  made  up  of  curves,  like  A,  nor  one  that  is 


PROPER  AND   IMPROPER   DIVISIONS 


73 


too  angular,  like  B  ;  the  design   C  seems  to  obviate 
both  these  defects  (Fig.  94). 


FIG   93. — Door  panels  illustrating  an  ill-proportioned  division  at  A,  and  a  well- 
proportioned  one  at  B. 


6 


FIG.  94. — Finger-plates  for  a  door,  of  different  outlines. 


Compositions   wholly   formed  of  parallel   straight 


74  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

lines,  such  as  entablatures,  and  some  door  and  window 
architraves,  have  a  severity,  that  borders  upon  the 
monotonous,  that  is  sometimes  called  dryness.  The 
Greeks  corrected  this  defect  in  their  entablatures  by 
introducing  figures  in  the  frieze,  while  the  Romans 
mostly  ornamented  their  friezes  with  festoons  and 
foliage.  In  the  door  architrave  at  the  Erechtheum 
circular  paterae  are  used  on  the  fascia  for  this  reason 
(Fig.  96) ;  modern  ornamentalists  have  introduced 
curved  figures  to  correct  the  dryness.  Archivolts  to 
circular  openings  without  imposts,  and  not  enclosed 
by  straight  lines,  lack  firmness  and  rigidity,  which 
may  be  imparted  by  inserting  frets  or  flutes  radiating 
from  the  centre,  on  the  fascia  of  the  archivolt  (Fig. 
95).  Similar  devices  may  be  employed  to  correct 
weakness  in  planes  of  varied  outline.  In  the  shield 
of  the  savage  (Fig.  97),  made  of  black  and  yellow 
cane  ornamented  with  cut  shells,  the  two  horizontal 
bands,  just  below  the  junction  of  the  semicircles  with 
the  straight  lines,  strengthen  the  composition  ;  there 
is  a  fair  amount  of  contrast  between  the  oblique  lines 
of  the  ornaments,  and  the  circular,  slanting,  and 
horizontal  lines  ;  though  the  circular  cut  shell-work 
of  the  ends  is  excessive  and  monotonous.  Extreme 
repetition  is  a  common  fault  of  savage  art. 

When  a  surface  requires  ornament  and  yet  to  be 
kept  flat,  the  painted  or  inlaid  ornament  upon  it 
should  not  be  shaded  nor  have  cast  shadows,  or 
when  carved  it  should  be  sunk :  what  beauty  can 
be  got  by  flat  colours  may  be  seen  in  the  tiles  from 
Rhodes,  Cairo,  and  Damascus.  On  large  surfaces 
the  best  forms  of  applying  ornaments  is  within 
lines  of  checkers,  network  (Figs.  98  and  99),  or 


ORNAMENT  IN  CONTRAST  WITH  BOUNDARIES  75 

diapers,  and  except  in  the  case  of  very  large  surfaces, 
where  striking  variety  may  be  introduced  at  set 
intervals,  the  ornament  should  be  uniform  in  general 


FIG.  95. — Contrasting  decoration  on  rectangular  and  circular  borders. 

effect,  leaving  the  varieties  to  be  discovered  by  closer 
inspection.  One  of  the  best  examples  of  this,  though 
it  is  not  in  diapers,  is  in  the  Medici  Chapel  at  Florence. 
Michael  Angelo  enriched  a  string  there  with  copies 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


of  antique  masks  ;  in  looking  at  the  sides  of  the 
chapel  the  masks  seem  all  alike,  but  on  going  near 
them,  each  one  is  seen  to  be  different.  Innumerable 
examples  of  ornament  within  network,  checkers,  and 
diapers,  maybe  found  in  Saracenic,  Moresque,  Gothic, 
and  Renaissance  work. 

To  adopt  forms  directly  from  nature  for  the  shape 
of  any  article  of  use  is  rarely  successful,  though  the 
best  shapes  have  mostly  been  suggested  by  natural 


FIG.  96. — Door  case  at  the  Erechtheum  showing  the  paterae  on  the  fascia. 

forms.  The  Orientals,  especially  those  of  the  extreme 
East,  have  been  very  fond  of  this  direct  imitation, 
as  in  vessels  made  in  imitation  of  a  piece  of  bamboo, 
of  gourds  with  both  single  and  double  bulbs,  of  eggs, 
cocoanuts,  the  horns  and  hoofs  of  animals  including 
the  horn  of  the  rhinoceros,  of  shells,  flowers,  &c.,  but 
they  mostly  want  stands  or  feet,  which  partly  removes 
them  from  pure  realism,  except  in  the  case  of  the 


CONTRASTING   FORMS  77 

bamboo,  the  form  of  which  too  is  not  particularly 
beautiful.  When  the  ancient  traditions  had  died  out 
in  England,  and  the  proper  application  of  ornament 


FIG.  97. — Shield  made  of  cane  and  ornamented  with  cut  shells  and  zigzags. 

to  articles  of  use  was  unknown,  it  occurred  to  many 
that  such  objects  might  be  directly  imitated  from 
nature.  Sprays  of  fuchsia  with  a  large  flower  on 
each  were  used  for  curtain  hooks  ;  branches  of  plants 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


were  used  for  gas  brackets  with  the  flame  coming 
from  the  flower ;  and  vases  were  made  in  imitation 
of  the  blossom  of  the  arum.  Sometimes  nature 
itself  was  not  vast  enough  for  imitation  ;  earthenware 
bowls  and  wine-coolers  were  made  in  imitation  of 
wickerwork,  gold  brooches  in  imitation  of  twisted 
bread,  and  other  adaptations  were  made  that  were 
equally  incongruous.  It  is  true  that  the  Japanese 
sometimes  protect  their  porcelain  with  an  outer 
covering  of  woven  cane,  and  wicker-covered  bottles 


FIGS.  98  and  99.— Carved  checkers. 

are  not  unknown  here.  The  Kafirs,  too,  carry  their 
milk  in  woven  baskets  ;  yet  in  spite  of  these  cases, 
there  is  an  apparent  absurdity  in  such  designs,  not 
to  speak  of  the  poverty  of  invention  they  betray. 

Such  vagaries  are  happily  disappearing,  since/the 
creation  of  museums  and  schools  of  ornamental  art, 
but  they  are  by  no  means  extinct. 

Every  article,  whether  for  use  or^ornament,  should 
first  be  constructed  as  elegantly  as  possible  for  its 
purpose,  or  supposed  purpose ;  and  only  be  orna- 
mented when  the  ornament  does  not  appear  incon- 
gruous, and  does  not  interfere  with  its  use,  but  only 


WALL   DECORATION  79 

emphasizes  its  form  or  relieves  it  from  monotony. 
Although  this  chapter  is  mainly  confined  to  outlines 
and  divisions  of  surfaces,  something  has  been  said 
about  the  application  of  ornament,  so  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  lower  part  of  a  wall  should  be 
treated  with  more  severity  and  sobriety  than  the 
upper  part ;  for  the  lower  part  is  partly  hidden  by 
furniture,  and  is  most  liable  to  injury.  The  Romans 
and  Byzantines  mostly  used  marble  for  the  lower 
parts  of  walls  in  magnificent  buildings,  though  in 
houses  of  less  magnificence  marble  was  either  imitated 
by  painting,  or  else  simple  floral  decoration  was 
used.  .The  Saracens  also  employed  marble,  but  when 
that  was  not  easy  to  obtain,  tiles  took  its  place. 
The  Mediaevals  used  marble,  wood  panelling,  or 
tapestry,  and  when  the  walls  were  wholly  painted, 
they  often  imitated  the  more  costly  materials.  Geo- 
metrical figures  or  diapers  are  most  appropriate  for 
this  part,  when  it  is  painted  or  papered.  The  part 
of  the  wall  above  this  may  be  treated  with  greater 
freedom  and  elaboration.  The  part  of  the  wall  on  a 
level  with  the  eye  should  have  greater  finish  bestowed 
on  it,  unless  there  be  a  frieze  with  figures  or  a  higher 
class  of  ornament  to  a  larger  scale. 


CHAPTER   VI 

HAVING  previously  considered  the  principal  ele- 
ments  of  ornament,  it  is    now   advisable    to 
classify  ornament  in  accordance  with  the  spaces  it  has 
to  fill,  and  these  may  roughly  be  divided   into   six 
classes  or  great  divisions,  as  follows  :— 

1.  Uniform  surfaces,  as  floors,  walls,  and  ceilings. 

2.  Horizontal  bands,  as  friezes,  &c. 

3.  Perpendicular  bands,  as  panels  of  piers,  pilasters, 
stripes,  &c. 

4.  Symmetrical    arrangements,    as    panels,    either 
rectangular  or  of  closed  curved  figures. 

5.  Symmetrical  arrangements  composed  of  straight 
and   curved  lines   or   of  compound   curves,  as    span- 
drels, panels  of  curved  and  straight  lines. 

6.  Unsymmetrical    spaces  founded  by  straight  or 
curved  lines,  or  by  both. 

The  uniform  siirfaces  of  large  undivided  areas  are 
mostly  decorated  in  the  following  ways :  by  all-over 
patterns,  by  diapering,  checkering,  powdering,  or  spot- 
ting. All-over  patterns  may  be  symmetrical,  balanced, 
or  one-sided,  and  are  drawn,  painted,  modelled,  or 
carved,  The  typical  pattern,  if  symmetrical,  has  no 

80 


gl 


FIG.  100.— Waving  pattern,  stamped  velvet,  i6th  century.     Italian,  showing 
Saracenic  influence. 


82  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

two  pieces  of  the  ornament  alike  in  the  one  half; 
and  if  balanced  or  onesided  has  no  two  pieces  alike  ; 
so  that  the  whole  is  full  of  interest  from  its  variety. 
It  is,  however,  rarely  seen,  as,  unless  the  artist  does  it 
for  his  own  delight,  few  amateurs  care  to  pay  for  it. 
It  is  simulated  in  paper-hangings  by  the  repetition 
of  a  piece,  the  width  of  the  paper  (Fig.  143),  called  a 
repeat ;  by  stencilling  or  pouncing  the  repeat,  if 
painted  ;  and  by  cast  repeats,  if  in  plaster.  This  is 
one  of  the  cheap  substitutes  for  the  real  thing  which 
pervades  European  art.  The  Chinese  formerly  sup- 
plied paper-hangings  that  would  cover  a  whole  room 
without  a  repeat. 

A  diaper  pattern  is  properly  one  contained  in 
some  repeating  geometrical  figure  not  composed  of 
straight  lines.  In  Saracenic  and  Moresque  work  real 
diapers  are  mostly  found,  a  geometrical  framework 
being  laid  over  some  interlaced  floral  patterns  (Fig. 
101).  The  name  diaper  comes  from  jasper,  through 
the  Low  Latin  diasprum,  Italian  diaspro,  or  French 
diapre,  and  was  originally  applied  to  woven  stuffs 
from  the  East.  (See  Figs.  101,  106,  107,  109,  and 
no.)  These  were  mostly  of  silk  covered  with  small 
patterns  in  colour,  that  suggested  the  appearance 
of  the  flowering  of  jasper. 

In  vulgar  parlance,  it  is  now  applied  to  all  patterns 
enclosed  in  a  repeating  geometrical  form.  Dados 
in  painted  decoration  were  mostly  diapered,  as  may  be 
seen  in  one  of  the  churches  of  St.  Francis,  Assisi ;  and 
at  the  Sainte  Chapelle  at  Paris,  the  diapers  are  on 
painted  hangings ;  at  the  Arena  Chapel  at  Padua  the 
dado  is  painted  in  imitation  of  marble  panels. 

Checkers  and  network  enclosing  carved   patterns 


si 


DIAPERS,  CHECKERS,  AND    NETWORK          83 

are  found  on  the  walls  of  Gothic  cathedrals  and 
churches  (Figs.  98,  99).  When  the  space  covered 
with  checkers,  network,  or  diapers  is  not  too  large 
the  patterns  should  so  far  resemble  one  another  as 
to  give  a  uniform  appearance,  the  variations  being 
only  enough  to  prevent  disgust  on  a  near  view. 
Two  patterns  may  sometimes  alternate,  but  in 
very  large  surfaces  another  distinct  pattern  should 
be  introduced,  at  certain  intervals,  to  relieve  the 


FIG.  101. — Moresque  diaper. 


FIG.  102.— Japanese  network. 


monotony.  Care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  net- 
work and  pattern  of  the  proper  scale  for  the  building 
or  room,  and  for  the  other  decoration. 

Diapers  are  found  in  Chinese  and  Japanese  decora- 
tion, although  rectilinear  network  is  more  common 
(Fig.  102),  but  powdering  is  most  favoured  by  them 
(Figs.  103 — 105).  Sometimes  it  is  put  over  a  pattern 
(Fig.  104).  Powdering  was,  too, -a  favourite  method 
of  ornamenting  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

The  second  division  is  ornament  arranged  in  hori- 
zontal bands.  The  Greeks  were  pre-eminent  in  the 
use  of  horizontal  bands  in  their  sculptured  and 


84 


0> 


@ 


© 


FIG.  103. — Japanese  powdering. 


FIG.  104. — Superimposed  Japanese 
powdering. 


FIG.  105.— Japanese  powdering. 


FIG.  106. — Diaper,  Italian  brocade, 
1 6th  century. 


FIG.  107.— Diaper  in  velvet  brocade,  i6th  century.     Italian  (German  origin). 


86 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


painted  decorations.  The  embroidered  or  woven 
patterns  on  their  dresses,  shawls,  and  curtains,  and 
the  beautiful  ornament  on  their  vases,  were  mainly 


FIG.  108. — Construction  lines  of  Fig.  109. 

designed  on  this  system.  Thefrzeze  is  a  character- 
istic feature  in  Greek  architecture;  and  if  you  take 
the  band  ornaments  out  of  Greek  work  there  is  very 
little  ornament  left.  Figs.  37,  42,  45,  49,  51,  52,  113, 


FIG.  109.— Velvet  brocade,  i6th  century.     Italian. 


88  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

114,  and  115  are  some  of  their  favourite  band 
patterns.  Figs.  116  and  117  show  some  of  the 
patterns  on  dresses  taken  from  the  Greek  vases. 
The  shawl  (peplum)  of  Demeter  on  a  vase  at  the 
British  Museum  has  chariot  races,  winged  cupids, 
animals,  birds,  and  dolphins  in  the  successive  bands ; 
the  sacred  shawls  of  Minerva  at  the  Parthenon  (pepla) 
are  only  known  by  description.  One  had  the  battle 
of  the  gods  and  giants  woven  or  embroidered  on  it, 
and  another  was  ornamented  with  the  portraits  of 
Antigonus  and  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  (Plutarch's 
Demetrius). 

Spotting  at  regular  intervals  was  the  favourite 
way  of  decorating  the  larger  surface  of  dresses. 
The  circular  flower  that  usually  formed  the  spot  in 
Greek  ornament  was  composed  of  a  greater  number 
.of  petals  than  the  Roman,  and  is  probably  of  Assy- 
rian origin.  (See  Fig.  116.)  Saracen  work  also 
affords  good  examples  of  horizontal  band  treatment. 
(See  Figs.  118  and  119.) 

The  third  division :  perpendicular  bands  are  not 
so  common  in  decoration  as  the  former  class;  they 
are  mostly  architectural  in  character,  and  usually 
form  divisions  between  wall-spaces  in  the  shape  of 
panels  in  piers  and  pilasters.  Triglyphs  in  friezes 
may  even  be  classed  in  this  division,  and  so  may 
the  soffits  of  arches  in  the  Classic  and  Renaissance 
styles;  the  decoration  of  the  soffits  of  beams  and 
of  ribs  and  groins  in  Gothic,  though  some  purists 
say  it  gives  a  look  of  weakness  to  the  arch.  When 
the  soffits  of  arches  are  wide  in  proportion  to  their 
height  they  may  be  panelled,  and  if  narrow  be 
treated  like  pilaster  panels,  the  bottom  of  each  side 


89 


FIG.  no. — Diaper  in  silk  brocade.     Italian  or  Spanish,  i6th  century  ;  formerly  used 
for  dress  purposes,  but  now  only  employed  for  furniture. 


FIG.  112. —  Stamped  velvet,  i6th  century.     Italian. 


FIG.  113. — Greek  ivy  meander^border. 


'- 


FIG.  114.— Greek  border  from  a  vase. 


FIG.  115. — Greek  border  with  fret  bands. 


92  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIGS.  116  and  117. — Greek  borders. 


PILASTER   DECORATION 


93 


being  at  the  springing ;  the  tops  may  nearly  touch 
at  the  crown,  or  be  separated  by  a  circular  panel. 
The  decoration  of  pilaster  panels  in  relief  should 
be  comparatively  low,  and  although  some  of  the 
minor  details  may  almost  sink  into  the  ground, 
there  should  be  nothing  vague;  the  danger  to  be 
apprehended  being  a  loss  of  architectural  severity 


119 

FIGS.  118  and  119. — Persian  borders. 

in  this  supporting  feature.  The  ornament  on  a 
pilaster  must  be  symmetrically  built  with  the  strong- 
est elements  at  the  base  and  the  lightest  at  the  top. 
The  best  examples  of  this  kind  of  decoration  are 
Roman,  Italian,  and  French  Cinque-Cento  work. 
The  latter  may  be  seen  in  the  well-known  pilasters 
of  Louis  XII.  The  artists  of  those  times  paid 
the  same  attention  to  pilaster  decoration  that  the 


94  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  120.— Upright  lily  border.     Greco-Roman. 


PILASTER   DECORATION 


95 


Greeks  did  to  horizontal  band-work.  Figs.  121,  122, 
and  123  show  some  examples  of  pilaster  decoration, 
When  the  main  ornamental  effect 
is  obtained,  the  next  problem  to 
be  solved  is  to  get  the  greatest 
possible  variation  in  the  planes 
of  the  carving,  so  that  the  orna- 
ment may  not  have  the  air  of 
being  cut  out  with  a  fret-saw, 
with  the  face  slightly  carved 
and  pinned  on.  It  is  sometimes 
well  to  accentuate  certain  por- 
tions if  care  be  taken  to  avoid 
spottiness ;  occasionally  the 
main  piece  of  ornament  that 
has  the  greatest  projection  may 
be  echoed  up  the  pilaster  with 
a  sort  of  ebb  and  flow,  only 
the  greatest  subsidiary  projec- 
tion should  be  less  than  the 
main  one.  Modern  ornament- 
alists  have  insisted,  that  if 
animal  forms  are  introduced 
they  should  be  repeated,  and 
rise  in  scale  of  importance  as 
they  get  higher ;  but  this 
method  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  adhered  to  by  the  Romans 
or  Renaissance  artists.  In  the 
latter  we  sometimes  meet  with 
cupids  or  children  at  the  very 
base  of  the  panel. 

T/te  fourth  division. — Ornament  in  panels,  &c.    Ceil- 


w/. 


FIG. 


[2i. — Pilaster  designed 
by  Donatello. 


96 


FIG.  12^. — Italian  Cinque-centc 
pilaster  panel. 


FIG.  123. — Italian  pilaster  decoration. 


97 


FIG.  124. — German  book  cover,  date  1572,  in  four  enamel  colours  and  gold 


II 


98 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


PANELS   AND    BORDERS 


99 


ings  have  been  treated  in  Chapter  IV,,  and  floors 
cannot  have  real  panels,  so  upright  rectangular  panels 
may  be  taken  first.  Their  simplest  ornamentation  is 
by  moulding;  if  the  mouldings  have  stopped  ends,  they 
are  known  as  linen  panels.  When  narrow  and  un- 
moulded  they  may  be  filled  with  symmetrical  ornament 


FIG.  126. — Venetian  panel  illustrating  "balance"  without  symmetry. 

on  either  side  of  an  upright  stem,  either  purely  floral 
(Figs.  148  and  120),  or  after  the  manner  of  pilaster 
panels,  or  the  ornament  may  spring  from  vases  at  the 
bottom  (Fig.  127),  or  they  may  have  central  medallions 
circular  or  oval,  paterse  or  bosses ;  and  in  cases  where 
these  narrow  panels  are  in  a  long  succession,  each  one 
may  be  varied,  or  the  centres  alone  may  be  varied,  if  the 


loo  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

size  and  weight  of  the  centres  be  preserved  ;  circular 
and  oval  panels  in  moulded  frames  should  be  avoided 
in  woodwork  on  account  of  the  chances  of  the  mould- 
ings splitting.  In  Saracenic  and  Moresque  work  the 


FIG.  127. — Cinque-cento  panel. 

panels  are  mostly  filled  by  diapers,  and  in  late 
European  work  it  was  common  to  enrich  the  corners, 
and  sometimes  to  form  a  centre,  leaving  the  rest  of 
the  panel  plain,  spotted,  powdered,  or  filled  with 
interlaced  work. 

In  ornamental  panels  the  mouldings  of  the  frame 


PANEL   ORNAMENT 


101 


FIG.  128.— Renaissance  panel  ornament. 


102  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  129. — Wine  crater  in  silver  from  the  Hildesheim  treasures.     Antique  Roman. 


PANEL   ORNAMENT 


103 


must  never  be  wholly  ornamented  (see  Fig.  128); 
sometimes  they  may  be  wholly  plain,  but  if  there  be 
several  mouldings,  it  is  well  to  slightly  enrich  one 
member  to  connect  the  frame  with  the  panel  and 
detach  it  from  the  plain  stiles  and  rails  ;  these  should 


FIG.  130. — Cinque-cento  floral  ornament  composed  of  the  acanthus,  oak  leal, 
convolvulus,  and  wild  rose,  &c. 

never  be  carved  when  enriched  panels  are  used. 
When  great  richness  is  required,  and  the  panels  are 
carved,  inlay  or  incised  ornament  is  the  best  form  of 
enrichment  for  the  stiles  and  rails. 

The  fifth    division. — Compound    shapes    such    as 
spandrels,  segmental  pediments,  compound  panels,  and 


104 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


tail-pieces  (Figs.  134,  135),  the  last  known  in  France 
under  the  name  of  "  lamp  bottoms,"  some  arms  and 
pieces  of  armour  and  some  utensils  (Fig.  133). 


-In  spandrels  between  two  arches  a  slight  deviation 
from  symmetry  may  be  allowed  if  the  sides  are  well 
balanced,  but  it  requires  great  skill  to  render  the 
ornament  satisfactory  (Fig.  131).  If  the  arch  mould- 


SPANDREL   DECORATION 


105 


ings    are   properly  emphasized,   the   spandrels    may 
have  a  free  and  unsymmetrical  treatment,  for  they 


FIG.  132. — Spandrel  by  Stevens. 


do  not  appear  so  constructively  important  as  the 
panels  of  pilasters,  and  so  greater  freedom  is  allowed 
to  the  artist.  The  Gothic  spandrel  (Fig.  131)  from 
Stone  Church,  in  Kent,  is  a  good  example  of  balance. 


io6 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


The  sixth  division. — Unsymmetrical  spaces  to  be 
filled  with  ornament  are  rare,  being  mostly  found  in 
Saracen  work  and  in  arms  and  utensils,  except  in  the 
case  of  angular  spandrels  composed  of  a  vertical  and 


FIG.  133. — Panel  with  trophy  ot  arms  and  armour. 

horizontal  line  and  a  segment  (Fig.  132) ;  in  all  these 
cases,  balance  must  be  the  principle  employed.  Fig. 
132  shows  a  well-balanced  design  for  a  right-angled 
spandrel  between  a  round  arch  and  a  vertical  line,  the 
work  of  the  late  Alfred  Stevens. 


FIGS.  134  and  135. — Tail-pieces  (Renaissance),  or  lamp  bottoms. 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  ornamentalist  is  more  indebted  to  plants 
and  flowers,  both  for  materials  and  suggestions 
in  design,  than  to  any  other  division  in  the  domain  of 
nature.  The  best  conventional  and  aesthetic  floral 
ornament  was  the  outcome  of  the  study  of  plants 
and  flowers.  That  characteristic  Greek  ornament, 
the  honeysuckle  or  anthemion,  is  said  to  have  origin- 
ated from  the  Egyptian  lotus  flower,  or  the  Sacred 
Horn,  and  not  from  the  honeysuckle  ;  the  conventional 
rendering  of  this  flower  in  ornament  is  said  to  have 
been  adapted  from  the  Egyptian  forms  by  the  Chal- 
daeans ;  and  later  the  children  of  those  ancient  flower- 
worshippers,  the  Assyrians,  developed  the  pattern 
into  more  ornate  forms.  The  Greeks  in  their  turn 
are  supposed  to  have  copied  the  anthemion  from  the 
Assyrians :  at  first  it  was  archaic  and  stiff,  but  full  of 
vitality  as  ornament,  and  well  adapted  for  its  various 
uses  and  positions ;  and  at  last  perfected  to  such  a 
degree  of  aesthetic  purity  in  the  Erechtheum,  as  to 
lose  all  traces  of  any  particular  plant,  while  embody- 
ing the  best  qualities  of  plant-growth ;  for  in  it  we 
see  vigorous  life  combined  with  grace  and  elegance. 
Another  phase  of  floral  and  leaf  growth,  and  its 
108 


PLANT   FORMS    IN    ORNAMENT  109 

proper  development  into  pure  ornament,  can  be 
studied  in  the  many  rosettes  of  the  various  styles. 
These  are  circular  in  plan,  and  would  appear  at  first 
sight  to  be  derived  from  flowers,  but  are  mostly  a 
cluster  of  leaves,  radiating  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel, 
either  straight  or  curved. 

There  are  many  plants — for  instance,  the  bedstraw 
and  the  madder — that  have  their  sets  of  leaves  ar- 
ranged in  a  whorl  round  the  joints  of  their  upright 
stems  ;  looking  down  on  these  leaves  we  notice  that 
the  plan  appears  like  a  rosette.  This  idea  may  have 
occurred  to  the  ancients  when  designing  their  rosettes. 


FIG.  136.— Rosettes  or  paterae  from  Roman  ornament,  composed  of  leaf  and  fldral 

forms. 

The  results,  obtained  by  grouping  a  cluster  of  leaves 
together  in  this  manner,  are  finer  and  stronger  in 
appearance  than  any  imitation  of  flowers,  particularly 
in  sculptured  work.  (See  Fig.  136.)  Leaflets  and 
bracts  growing  at  the  junctions  of  stems  and  leaves 
also  furnished  ideas  and  forms  for  the  making  up  of 
rosettes  and  similar  ornament ;  but  more  use  is  made 
of  these  bracts  in  what  is  called  "  clothing  stems,"  or 
sheaths,  some  varieties  of  which  are  illustrated  at 
Figs.  137  and  157;  in  fact,  very  good  ornament  is 
often  composed  of  a  stem  or  meander  clothed  with 
these  bracts  alone.  Root  forms  are  not  much  used  in 
•  European  ornament,  though  Indian,  Saracen,  and 
Mediaeval  decoration  abound  in  examples  of  the 


L 


no  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

treatment  of  roots.  (See  Fig.  138.)  The  objection  to 
their  use  is  this,  that  it  gives  the  whole  ornament  the 
appearance  of  having  been  pulled  up  and  hung  to  dry, 
This  must  always  be  an  objection  to  their  use,  unless 
the  root  can  be  shown  in  the  ground  ;  consequently 
the  Roman  and  Renaissance  artists  let  their  ornament 


FIG.  137. — Bracts  used  for  "clothing"  stems  in  scrolls,  &c. 

spring  from  vases  or  clusters  of  leaves.  When  roots 
are  used  it  is  clear  that  the  general  outline  of  the  root 
must  alone  be  taken,  and  the  character  of  the  growth 
expressed  simply,  to  prevent  confusion  and  obscurity. 


FIG.  138. — Mediaeval  and  Oriental  root  forms. 

As  a  rule,  all  redundances,  excrescences,  and  acci- 
dental waywardness  of  growth,  that  might  be  inter- 
esting to  a  botanist,  ought  to  be  avoided  in  the 
decorative  rendering  of  plant  form  ;  the  average  form 
and  the  higher  beauties  should  alone  be  expressed. 
Though  this  may  seem  a  paradox,  the  less  realistic 


PLANT   FORMS    IN    ORNAMENT 


in 


we  make  our  designs,  the  more  nature  we  put  into 
them.  We  should  strive  to  put  the  most  perfect 
forms  of  nature  into  our  ornament,  avoiding  those 
that  are  poor  and  stunted,  as  well  as  over-nourished 
and  rank  ones,  though  nature  abounds  in  fyoth. 

In   Persian l  ornament  we    find    flower  and    plant 
forms   treated    in    a    thoroughly   decorative   manner 


FIG   139. —  Laurel  from  nature. 

(Figs.  118  and  119);  the  pink  and  hyacinth  were  as  > 
great  favourites  with  Persian  decorators  as  the  maple 
and   vine   were   in    mediaeval   work,    the    lotus   and 

1  There  are  many  styles  of  Persian  ornamentation — that  of 
the  Achaemenides,  probably  that  of  the  Macedonians  after  the 
conquest  of  Persia  by  Alexander  the  Great,  that  of  the  Sasanides, 
that  of  the  Saracens  after  they  conquered  the  country,  and  their 
ornamentation  was  doubtless  influenced  by  the  subsequent 
Mongul  conquest.  That  ornamentation  which  is  generally  called 
Persian,  except  modern  work,  seems  to  be  Saracenic, 


112 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


papyrus  in  Egyptian,  the  peony  in  Chinese,  and  the 
chrysanthemum  in  Japanese  ;  while  such  styles  as  the 
Greek,  Roman,  Celtic,  and  Saracenic  are  more  purely 
conventional,  and,  without  having  much  realism,  are 
still  based  pn  natural  forms. 

Students  in  design  cannot  be  too  strongly  advised 
to  cultivate  the  habit  of  making  correct  drawings  of 


FIGS.  140  and  141. — Borders  derived  from  the  laurel. 

all  kinds  of  plants,  both  in  flower  and  fruit,  especially 
those  of  single  flower  and  of  simple  growth,  ac- 
companied by  careful  notes  of  the  construction  at  the 
stem  and  leaf  junctions. 

The  botanical  analysis  of  a  plant  may  serve  a 
scientific  end,  and  be  useful  to  show  the  student  the 
construction  of  the  plant,  but  it  makes  a  very  poor 
show  in  an  artistic  design.  Landor  the  poet  said  it 


PLANT   FORMS   IN   ORNAMENT  113 

was  an  act  of  cruelty  to  cut  a  flower  from  its  stem :  it 
would  be  interesting  to  know  his  opinion  of  that 
school  which  believes  in  dissecting  plants  to  find 
"  new  forms,"  many  of  whose  designs  present  novelties 
that  nature  never  dreamt  of,  such  as  leaves  neatly 
cut  in  half,  elevations,  and  sections  of  petals,  stamens, 
pistils,  seed  pods,  and  other  curious  forms  suggested 


FIG.  142. — Wild  rose  from  nature. 

by  these  dissections,  so  that  the  design  when  com- 
pleted is  an  anatomical  preparation,  and  certainly 
innocent  of  any  violation  of  the  second  commandment. 
A  section  through  some  flowers  may,  however,  give 
suggestions  of  outline  for  some  flat  ornament.  The 
testimony  of  the  best  old  decorative  design  is  against 
this  practice.  It  is  refreshing  to  see  that  in  England 

I 


114 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


a  reaction  is  setting  in,  mainly  owing  to  the  efforts  of 
such  men  as  Sir  Edward  Burne-Jones,  Messrs.  Morris, 
Crane,  and  a  few  others,  who  prefer  nature  to  novelty. 
In  selecting  plants  for  particular  purposes,  it  is  well 
to  bear  in  mind  the  material  to  be  decorated,  whether 


FIG.  143.— Design  for  a  paper-hanging  from  the_wild[rose. 

it  be  woven  stuff,  wood,  or  metal-work,  and  to  choose 
the  kind  best  adapted  to  the  purpose — as  the  hare- 
bell, the  wild  poppy,  grasses,  and  delicate  ferns  for 
muslins,  cottons,  and  lace ;  the  oak,  orange,  lemon, 
pomegranate,  and  the  mallow  for  wood-  and  for  stone- 
carving,  and  for  iron-work.  At  the  same  time,  a  too 
rigid  adherence  to  these  principles  is  not  to  be  advised. 
What  is  of  most  importance  is  to  adhere  to  the  growth 


BORDERS 


FIG.  144. — Borders  of  medallions  in  enamelled  earthenware  by  Luca  della 
Robbia. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENf 


and  character  of  the  plant  we  use  ;  for  instance,  a  plant 
like  the  laurel  (Fig.  139)  is  best  suited  for  an  upright 
or  horizontal  border.  (See  Figs.  140,  141.)  The 
wild  rose  (Fig.  142)  and  the  lemon  (Fig.  145)  are  both 


FIG.  145. — Lemon  from  nature. 


FIG.  146. — Design  for  a  carved  wood  panel  from  the  lemon  plant. 

suitable  for  panels  of  almost  any  form,  for  all-over 
patterns,  or  for  paper-hangings,  &c.  (See  Figs.  143  and 
146.)  For  narrow  upright  panels,  plants  of  upright 
growth,  such  as  the  lily,  the  ox-eye,  and  the  iris,  &c., 


PLANT   FORM    IN   ORNAMENT  117 

are  most  suitable.  (See  for  illustrations  Figs.  147  and 
148.)  A  trailing  vine  makes  a  good  ceiling  decoration, 
and  was  so  used  by  the  Byzantine  mosaic  workers. 


FIG.  147. — Tiger  lily  from  nature.  FIG.  148. — Panel  arrangement  from 

the  Tiger  lily. 

Lastly,  plants  of  horizontal  growth,  such  as  the 
dandelion,  the  daisy,  &c.,  looked  at  from  above, 
might  be  best  adapted  for  a  floor,  a  carpet,  or  a  table* 
cover. 


ii8  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

The  well-known  conventional  acanthus  and  its 
varieties  must  now  be  described.  There  have  been 
various  suggestions  concerning  the  identical  plant 
from  which  the  acanthus  ornament  is  derived,  but, 
like  the  anthemion  of  the  Greeks,  there  is  some 


FIG.  149. — Acanthus  Mollis  from  nature. 

obscurity  about  it.  The  story  told  by  Vitruvius  oi 
the  sculptor  Callimachus  having  the  Corinthian 
capital  suggested  to  him,  by  finding  the  plant 
growing  round  a  basket  covered  by  a  square  tile,  is 
a  plausible  and  certainly  a  pretty  one  (Vit.  lib.  4, 
cap.  i).  At  any  rate,  Callimachus  is  credited  by 
Vitruvius  with  the  first  use  of  the  acanthus  in 
capitals.  The  ornamental  forms  of  the  acanthus 


ACANTHUS   LEAVES    IN    NATURE 


119 


bear  little    resemblance   to    the   natural    leaf.     (See 
Figs.    149,    150,    151,  and   152.)     The  two  latter  are 


FIG.  150. — Acanthus  Spinosus  from  nature. 

leaves  from  Greek  capitals,  the  first  two  have  been 
drawn  from  nature.  The  acanthus,  as  we  know  it 
in  the  capitals  of  the  Greek  and  Roman  Corinthian, 


120 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


and  the  Roman  Composite  orders,  is  an  artistic 
creation,  adapted  to  suit  the  ends  of  a  grand  style 
of  architecture,  and  not  an  imitation  of  a  particular 
leaf.  The  characteristic  difference  of  the  classic 
ornament  from  the  natural  leaf  lies  in  the  "  pipes " 
that  start  from  the  "  eyes  "  at  the  base  of  the  leaflets, 


FIG.  151. — Greek  acanthus  leaf  from  a  capital  of  the  Tower  of  the  Winds. 

and,  somewhat  contrary  to  nature,  taper  downwards 
to  the  base  of  the  leaf ;  these  pipes,  together  with  the 
central  stalk,  impart  that  strength  and  dignity  which 
is  necessary  for  architectural  foliage,  especially  when 
it  adorns  the  bell  of  a  capital.  (See  Fig.  154.)  The 
pipes  are  less  important,  and  are  consequently  less 
marked  in  examples  of  smaller  work,  such  as  may 


ACANTHUS   LEAF   ORNAMENT 


121 


be  found  in  the  acanthus  of  candelabra  and  panels, 
in  which  constructive  strength  is  not  required. 

On  the  Corinthian  capital,  the  acanthus  presents  a 
simple  edge  exactly  repeated  on  each  leaflet,  with 
far  less  serration  than  is  seen  in  the  natural  foliage  : 
this  imparts  dignity  to  the  leaf.  On  modillions  a 


FIG.  152. — Greek  acanthus  leaf  with  flowers  from  a  capital  of  the  Choragic 
Monument  of  Lysikrates. 

more  serrated  and  smaller  variety  is  used,  with  the 
stalks  and  pipes  still  prominent ;  while  on  candelabra 
and  small  pillars  the  leaves  lie  flatter,  and  the  leaflets 
overlap,  and  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  leaves  are 
smaller  in  scale  and  nearer  to  our  eyes,  more  ser- 
rations and  more  detail  may  be  put  into  them,  for 
the  smaller  the  scale  the  more  detail  is  necessary. 


OF 

XJKIVERSIT 


122  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   ORNAMENT 


FIG.  153. — Roman  leaf  of  capital, — the  olive  leaf  acanthus  variety, — see  Introductory 

Chapter. 


Plan  showing  stalk,  pipes,  and  undercut  channels  of  Fig.  153. 


ACANTHUS   LEAF   ORNAMENT 


123 


(See  Fig.  156.)  To  prevent  the  foliage  in  the  latter 
examples  from  appearing  flimsy,  as  it  would  naturally 
do  with  an  overlapping  edge  much  cut  up,  the  edges 
of  the  leaves  should  be  slightly  thickened  and 
rounded  so  as  to  catch  the  light,  thus  giving  a  rich 
quality  to  the  decoration.  The  Greeks  mostly  used 


FIG.  154. — Acanthus  ;  olive  leaf  variety  from  a  capital  of  Mars  Ultor. 

that  kind  of  acanthus  that  is  known  as  the  Acanthus 
spinosuSy  or  the  prickly  variety ;  the  Romans  pre- 
ferred the  Acanthus  mollis,  or  the  soft-leaved  kind. 
The  olive-leaf  has  been  used  for  the  raffles  of  the 
leaves  in  the  capitals  of  Jupiter  Stator,  Mars  Ultor, 
and  the  Pantheon  at  Rome  (see  Figs.  154,  185,  and 
1 88),  while  at  the  Temple  of  Vesta  at  Tivoli  the 


J24 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


capitals  have  the  oak-leaved  variety.  A  bit  of  the 
soft-leaved  acanthus  is  shown  at  Fig.  155  from  the 
soffit  of  the  architrave  at  the  temple  of  Jupiter 


FIG.  155. — Soft-leaved  acanthus  from  the  soffit  of  the  architrave  at  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Stator. 


FIG.  156. — Acanthus  used  on  candelabra  and  small  pillars. 

Stator.  The  Romans  sometimes  used  the  acanthus 
in  a  lavish  way,  overloading  mouldings  with  it ;  the 
cornice  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  for  instance, 
is  overdone  with  decoration.  (See  Fig.  186.)  The 
more  modern  type  of  acanthus  used  on  majolica 


125 


126  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  159.— Modern  varieties  of  sea-weed  and  poppy-leaved  acanthus  used  in 
decoration. 


ORNAMENT  DERIVED  FROM  THE  ACANTHUS    127 

plates  and  in  painted  decoration  is  of  a  very  free 
character,  but  it  only  holds  a  secondary  place,  being 
generally  found  in  combination  with  animal  forms 
and  grotesques.  The  utmost  freedom  in  the  curve 
and  reflex  curve  may  be  allowed  in  the  painted 
forms  of  the  acanthus ;  this  being  logical  enough 
when  we  consider  that  the  greater  part  of  the  leafage 
is  generated  by  the  free  play  of  the  brush.  (See 
Fig.  J590  The  arabesques  of  the  Vatican,  and  the 
Italian  cinque-cento  ware,  afford  the  best  examples 
of  this  painted  foliage.  The  acanthus  was  the  parent 
of  nearly  all  the  subsequent  styles  of  decorative 
foliage  down  to  the  Saracenic  and  late  Romanesque, 
and  its  modifications  have  shown  the  difficulty  of 
improving  on  the  Classic  type.  We  are  advised  by 
ornamentalists  and  writers  on  art  to  seek  for  a  new 
leaf  that  might  in  time  rival  the  acanthus  in 
ornament.  The  advice  may  be  good,  and  many 
have  given  their  attention  to  it,  but  no  lasting  results 
have  as  yet  been  obtained.  Of  late  years  there  is  a 
kind  of  scroll-work  much  favoured  by  some  orna- 
mentalists. .  It  cannot  of  course  be  called  new,  few 
things  can  be  in  this  world ;  but  its  persistent 
application,  from  illumination  to  stone-carving,  will 
perhaps  in  time  stamp  it  with  a  traditional  character. 
The  foliage  is  more  like  sea-weed  than  anything 
else,  but  it  also  has  a  faint  resemblance  to  the 
acanthus,  the  ox-eye,  and  the  wild  poppy  (Fig. 
159).  We  have  no  fixed  principles  of  ornamental 
art ;  even  ornamentalists  themselves  disagree  as 
to  what  is  good,  and  what  is  bad,  so  that  nothing 
lives  long  enough  to  become  national  ornament. 
How  can  we  hope  to  vie  with  the  ornamental 


128 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


FIG.  160. — Winter  aspect  of  a  pear  tree,  illustrating  "balance"  in  nature. 


ACANTHUS    ORNAMENT  129 

art  of  Greece,  when  the  artists  disagree  and  the 
nation  is  indifferent ;  while  the  Greeks  enjoyed 
unity  of  artistic  thought,  and  gloried  in  the  worship 
of  the  beautiful  ?  To  gain  a  fuller  insight  into 
the  delicate  varieties  of  the  acanthus,  the  student 
is  advised  to  carefully  examine  and  draw  the  foliage 
in  the  pilasters  of  Louis  XII.'s  tomb.  The  late 
Alfred  Stevens  has  done  more  than  any  one  of  late 
years  to  properly  apply  the  acanthus.  (See  Fig.  132.) 


K 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  "symbolic"  and  "mnemonic"  classes  of 
ornament  are  large,  and  are  interesting  alike 
to  the  historian,  the  antiquary,  and  the  student  of 
art.  It  is  not  easy  to  draw  the  line  between  them, 
as  the  latter  skirts  the  ground  of  the  former  so 
closely.  Mnemonic  ornament  is  that  class  which 
includes  written  characters,  signs,  hieroglyphics,  and 
natural  forms  as  aids  to  memory.  The  scenes,  facts, 
or  ideas  so  recalled  may  or  may  not  be  in  relation  to 
the  thing  decorated ;  e.g.  we  see  texts  from  the 
Koran  in  Kufic  and  other  characters,  used  to  decorate 
the  walls  and  gateways  of  mosques,  and  dresses, 
vases,  candlesticks,  and  other  articles  of  domestic  use. 
Japanese  ornament  abounds  in  mnemonic  characters 
with  or  without  other  forms.  All  writing  came 
from  the  picture-writing  of  barbarous  tribes ;  the 
symbols  of  these  pictures  were  used  on  the  one 
hand  for  letters,  and  on  the  other  for  ideas.  In 
the  decorative  art  of  most  nations,  inscriptions  can 
be  found  on  their  buildings,  utensils,  and  articles 
of  luxury ;  and  as  in  the  case  of  some  illuminated 
manuscripts,  it  is  not  only  difficult  to  know  where 
the  lettering  ends,  and  the  ornament  begins,  but 

130 


SYMBOLIC   AND    MNEMONIC  FORMS         131 

whether  the  main  end  was  not  ornament  rather 
than  instruction.  The  art  of  illumination  or  decor- 
ative writing  really  begins  when  there  is  a  desire 
to  have  the  written  matter  presented  in  a  beautiful 
form,  and  to  those  who  could  not  read  the  illumination 
alone  was  of  importance.  In  the  hands  of  artists 
letters  have  often  been  arranged  as  a  highly  orna- 
mental cipher.  Monogram  and  cipher  are  almost 
synonymous  terms ;  the  former  differs  only  from 
the  latter  in  this  respect,  that  a  monogram  may  have 
different  forms  of  the  letters  in  different  positions, 
and  still  have  the  same  meaning,  while  a  cipher 
cannot  have  more  than  one  particular  form  or  else 
it  defeats  its  purpose,  if  used  as  a  signet  or  as  a 
trade-mark.  The  decorations  found  on  the  tombs, 
sarcophagi,  and  stone  tablets,  &c.,  of  ancient  Egypt 
are  mnemonical  in  character,  and  this  was  the 
primary  reason  of  their  existence :  they  were  sculp- 
tured on  the  granite  slabs,  to  record  the  names  and 
virtues  of  the  deceased  kings  and  persons  of  note, 
but  at  the  same  time  they  were  made  pleasing  to 
the  eye ;  the  perfect  balance  and  even  distribution 
of  these  inscriptions  render  them  highly  decorative, 
and  they  become  mnemonic  ornament.  (See  Fig.  162.) 
This  diagram  is  the  hieroglyphic  inscription  taken 
from  the  famous  "  Tablet  of  Four  Hundred  Years." 
It  is  the  third  line  of  the  twelve  on  this  monument, 
and  is  thus  translated :  "  King  of  Upper  and  Lower 
Egypt,  Ra-user-ma,  Sotep-en-ra,  Son  of  Ra,  Ramases 
Mer-amen,  Chieftain  enriching  the  lands  with 
memorials  of  his  name."  The  inscription  at  Fig.  163 
occurs  frequently  in  Japanese  pottery ;  it  represents 
the  word  "  Jiu,"  meaning  longevity  or  everlasting  life. 


132  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

The  Japanese  symbols  of  longevity  are  the  following : 
the  god  of  longevity,  a  very  old  man  with  a  large 
head  and  merry  countenance,  holding  a  scroll  in  his 
hands,  and  accompanied  by  a  crane,  as  an  attribute, 
and  sometimes  by  a  stork  or  a  sacred  tortoise.  The 
crane  itself  is  a  symbol  of  long  life  ;  the  bamboo,  the 
fir,  and  the  plum  together  make  a  second  ;  and  the 
gourd  is  another.  Religion  has  had,  from  the  earliest 
period  of  man's  history,  Art  for  its  earthly  hand- 
maid, and  nine-tenths  of  symbolic  ornament  pertains 
to  religious  ordinances  and  ceremonies.  Nearly  all 
the  beginnings  of  art  expressed  religious  thought  by 
means  of  symbols  ;  the  picture  writing  of  barbarians, 
the  hieroglyphic  or  priestly  compositions  of  the 
Egyptians  on  papyrus  and  granite,  the  Runic  and 
Ogham  inscriptions  of  the  Northmen  and  ancient 
Celts,  were  alike  endowed  with  an  occult  meaning, 
but  they  were  symbols  to  the  initiated  only.  A  good 
example  of  symbolic  ornament  may  be  seen  at  Fig. 
164.  The  winged  globe  so  common  in  Egyptian  art 
has  been  found  sculptured  on  the  lintels  of  temple 
doorways  almost  thirty  feet  in  length.  The  globe 
is  said  to  symbolize  the  sun,  the  outspread  wings 
the  overshadowing  presence  of  Providence,  and  the 
asps  dominion  or  the  monarchy.  The  Scarab,  or 
winged  beetle  (Fig.  161),  is  an  emblem  of  the  Creator 
or  Maker.  The  disc  or  ball  that  it  holds  between 
its  claws  is  said  to  represent  the  Sun,  from  which  all 
life  is  derived.  Another  and  more  natural  meaning 
attached  to  the  disc  is  that  it  represents  the  ball  con- 
taining the  egg  which  the  beetle  usually  rolls  to  a  place 
of  safety,  where  it  is  buried,  and  in  course  of  time  new 
life  will  spring  from  it.  This  emblem  occurs  as .  a 


EGYPTIAN  ORNAMENT  133 

central  ornament  in  some  Egyptian  ceilings.  Nearly 
all  Egyptian  ornament  was  symbolic.  The  canons  or 
laws  laid  down  by  the  Egyptian  priests  and  chief 
scribes  for  the  guidance  of  artists  were  for  centuries 
unvarying  ;  every  ornament,  including  representations 
of  the  human  figure,  was  drawn  and  sculptured  by 
rule,  and  no  one  was  allowed  to  alter  the  type  under 
severe  penalties.  The  blue  Nymphea  or  lotus  flower 
is  pre-eminently  characteristic  of  Egyptian  ornament 
(see  Fig.  165);  it  was  sacred  as  the  type  of  coming 


FIG.  161. — Egyptian  Scarabeus. 

plenty,  as  it  appeared  just  before  the  springing  of  the 
crops,  and  immediately  after  the  subsidence  of  the 
Nile  ;  it  was  therefore  to  the  Egyptians  the  harbinger 
of  their  daily  bread,  so  there  need  be  little  wonder 
that  it  was  worshipped  by  them  as  the  emblem  of 
earthly  goodness.  There  is  a  species  of  lotus  that 
bears  fruit,  and  it  is  said  that  the  form  of  the  Jewish 
seven-branched  candlestick  was  derived  from  it.  The 
lotus  was  used  in  the  decoration  of  everything 
Egyptian,  the  fresh  flowers  were  used  in  garnishing 
the  offerings  to  their  gods,  and  was  also  presented 
as  a  peace  offering  to  strangers  and  visitors.  Next 


134 


SYMBOLIC   ORNAMENT 


135 


in  importance  to  the  lotus  came  the  palm  as  a 
symbolical  plant ;  this  was  used  by  the  Assyrians  in 
their  bas-reliefs.  It  was,  when  surrounded  by  the 
sacred  horn,  called  the  "tree  of  life"  (Fig.  166).  The 
date-palm  is  here  surrounded  by  the  sacred  horn, 
which  grew  on  the  slopes  of  the  Hindoo  Kush,  and 
was  the  plant  from  which  inebriating  drink  was  first 


FIG.  166. — Sacred  tree  of  life  or  horn  (British  Museum),  from  an  Assyrian 
bas-relief. 

made  by  the  Aryans.  The  date-palm  was  certainly 
the  tree  of  life  to  Eastern  nations,  affording  them 
food,  alcoholic  drink,1  and  shelter.  Many  animals, 
birds,  and  hybrid  creations,  such  as  the  Egyptian 
sphinx  and  the  winged  bull  of  Assyria,  had  symbolical 
meanings. 

The  fircone,  so  common   in   Assyrian  ornament, 

1  In  the  sixteenth  chapter  of  the  Koran  called  the  "  Bee,"  it 
is  said,  "and  of  the  fruit  of  the  palm-trees  and  of  grapes,  ye 
obtain  an  inebriating  liquor  and  also  good  nourishment." 


1 36 


THE    PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


was  an  emblem  of  fire,  as  the  lotus  was  an  emblem 
of  water,  and  this  cone  placed  on  a  staff,  and  adorned 
with  ribbons,  was  carried  by  the  Bacchanals  and 
Maenads  when  celebrating  the  festivals  of  Dionysus, 
the  Greek  Bacchus.  This  is  known  as  the  "  thyrsus," 
or  staff  of  Bacchus.  (See  Fig.  167.)  The  pine-tree 
was  sacred  to  Dionysus,  from  its  supplying  turpen- 


FIG.  167. — Three  forms  of  the  thyrsus  or  staff  of  Bacchus. 

tine  to  make  torches  ;  wine  also  was  made  from  its 
cones,  both  important  elements  in  these  festivals. 
The  head  of  the  thyrsus  was  often  made  of  ivy  leaves 
instead  of  the  pine-cone,  and  Bacchus  is  said  to  have 
concealed  spears  under  this  head  of  leaves,  and  thus 
overcome  those  who  were  inimical  to  him  (Diodorus 


ALLEGORICAL   PAINTING  137 

Sic.  lib.  iii.  cap.  iv.  ;  Ovid's  Metamor.  iii.  667).  The 
vine  and  the  ivy  were  also  sacred  to  Bacchus,  and 
are  symbolical  of  him  in  Greek  and  Roman  decor- 
ation. Early  Christian  and  mediaeval  art  are  also 
teeming  with  symbolic  ornaments.  These  ornaments 
are  often  called  indifferently  "  emblems/'  "  attributes," 
"symbols,"  &c.  Allegory  is  a  kind  of  parable,  and 
the  word  is  often  applied  to  allegorical  painting  or 
sculpture,  which  is  a  representation  of  one  thing 
under  the  image  of  another,  and  is  mostly  expressed 
by  human  or  animal  forms.1  In  a  recent  picture 
called  "  Hope,"  by  Mr.  Watts,  we  have  a  fine 
allegorical  illustration,  in  a  figure  seated  on  a  sphere, 
or  the  world,  bending  her  ear  to  catch  the  strains  of 
a  lyre  which  she  plays,  which  has  only  one  string 
left  ;  there  is  a  weird  feeling  of  loneliness  about  the 
composition,  just  relieved  from  utter  desolation  by 
the  music  that  is  left  in  the  one  string. 

1  "  Eve's  tempter  thus  the  rabbins  have  express'd, 
A  cherub's  face,  a  reptile  all  the  rest."  —  POPE. 


CHAPTER   IX 

THE  arabesques  of  the  Vatican  have  been 
noticed  before  ;  there  were,  however,  arabesques 
on  the  ceiling  of  the  Sala  del  Cambio  at  Perugia, 
painted  by  Perugino,  Raphael's  master,  also  in  the 
Borgia  apartment  at  the  Vatican,  and  in  the  Villa 
Madama ;  arabesques  of  the  latter  are  said  to  have 
been  copied  from  the  plaster  work  in  Hadrian's 
villa  near  Tivoli. 

Raphael,  being  one  of  the  greatest  modern  painters, 
added  to  the  beauty  of  this  sort  of  decoration  by  the 
exquisite  drawing  and  composition  of  the  figures. 
Some  of  the  medallions  at  the  Loggias  contain 
subjects  said  to  be  taken  from  antique  gems,  and 
Scripture  subjects  are  also  introduced  ;  the  expulsion 
of  Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise  is  balanced  by  one 
of  Omphale  and  Hercules,  the  queen  having  the  club. 

When  a  cipher  or  a  sign  conveys  to  our  minds 
an  idea,  or  an  association  of  ideas,  we  call  it  a 
"symbol"  particularly  if  the  idea  is  connected  with 
religion.  The  commonest  form  met  with  in  symbolic 
art  is  the  circle,  as  the  symbol  of  eternity,  from  its 
having  neither  beginning  nor  ending ;  it  often  appears 
as  a  serpent  with  its  tail  in  its  mouth,  for  this,  like 
many  other  Pagan  symbols,  was  adopted  by  the 

138 


SYMBOLIC   SIGNS   AND    FORMS  139 

early  Christians.  The  circle  in  the  shape  of  a  wheel 
has  perhaps  had  the  widest  signification  in  art. 
The  wheel  of  fire,  or  sun-wheel,  was  an  emblem  of 
the  Teutonic  sun-worshippers.  The  tchakra,  or  sacred 
wheel,  is  the  emblem  of  the  religion  of  Brahma  ;  it  is 
the  shield  of  Brahma  and  Vishnu,  as  a  wheel  of  fire  ; 
it  is  to  the  Siamese  a  type  of  universal  dominion,  a 
sign  of  disaster,  and  the  symbol  of  eternity.  (See  Fig 
1 68.)  The  wheel  form  at  Fig.  169  is.  the  kikumon  or 
badge  of  the  Empire  of  Japan  ;  it  is  derived,  however, 
from  the  chrysanthemum. 


FIG.  168. — The  "tchakra,"  or  sacred  FIG.  169. — Kiku-Mon,  badge 

wheel  of  Brahma  and  Vishnu,  also  of  the  empire  of  Japan, 

called  the  "  wheel  of  fire." 

Christian  art,  from  the  beginning  of  the  first 
century  of  our  era  to  the  fourth,  consisted  almost 
entirely  of  symbols.  The  first  Christians  were  fearful 
lest  their  new  converts  should  relapse  into  Paganism, 
and  so  avoided  images  ;  and  being  persecuted  they 
used  only  a  few  symbols  such  as  the  fish,  the  dove, 
the  lamb,  and  the  monogram  of  Christ.  This  last 
consisted  of  two  Greek  letters  X  and  P  (Chi  and  Rho), 
the  Chi  forming  the  cross  as  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  170 ; 
another  form  of  this  is  shown  at  B,  in  which  a  cross 
has  the  Rho  formed  on  the  upright  stem,  and  has  the 
first  and  last  letters  of  the  Greek  alphabet  (Alpha 


140  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

and  Omega)  written  beneath  the  arms.  This  form 
sometimes  appears  on  the  nimbus  over  the  head  of 
a  lamb ;  the  latter  sometimes  stands  on  a  round  hill, 
at  the  bottom  of  which  issue  four  streams,  the  whole 
symbol  signifying  "  Christ  the  first  and  the  last,  the 
Lamb  of  God/'  the  streams  "the  four  evangelists 
whose  gospels  are  the  water  of  life  to  the  whole 
world." 

At  C,  Fig  170,  we  have  the   monogram  that  the 
Emperor    Constantine    placed   on    the    labarum,    or 


B 

FIG.  170. — Sacred  Monograms  in  Christian  Art. 

Imperial  standard,  after  his  conversion  ;  it  was  woven 
in  gold  on  purple  cloth.  Christ  was  sometimes  repre- 
sented as  Orpheus,  with  a  lyre  in  his  hand,  amid  the 
birds  and  beasts ;  the  commonest  personification  of 
Him  was,  however,  as  the  Good  Shepherd  caring  for 
His  sheep,  in  which  He  was  always  represented  young 
and  beautiful.  Every  allegorical  representation  of 
the  Founder  of  the  Christian  religion  was  rendered 
pleasing  to  the  eye  of  the  new  converts,  and  anything 
pertaining  to  the  dreadful  scene  of  the  Crucifixion 
was  avoided.  The  Christian  Church  was  symbolized 
under  the  form  of  a  ship,  with  our  Lord  as  the  pilot 
and  the  congregation  as  the  passengers ;  whence  we 


SYMBOLIC   SIGNS   AND    FORMS 


141 


may  have  the  word  nave  (of  a  church),  from  navis,  a 
ship ;  naus,  a  ship,  was  also  the  Greek  name  for  the 
inner  part  of  a  temple. 

.  The  dove  in  Christian  art  is  the  emblem  of  fidelity 
and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  pelican  of  the  Atonement, 
and  the  phoenix  of  the  Resurrection.  One  of  the 
symbols  of  our  Lord  is  a  fish,  because  its  Greek  name 


FIG.  171. — Counter-change  ornament,  Spanish  embroidery. 

'Ix^s  (Ichthus)  contains  the  initials  of  "  Jesus  Christ, 
the  Son  of  God,  the  Saviour."  It  was  also  used  as 
the  symbol  of  a  Christian  passing  through  the  world 
without  being  sullied  by  it,  as  the  fish  is  sweet,  in 
spite  of  its  living  in  salt  water ;  it  is  found  engraved 
in  the  soft  stone  of  the  Roman  catacombs  (where  the 
early  Christians  took  refuge),  with  the  monogram 
a'nd  other  inscriptions.  The  Vesica  piscis,  or  fish 
form,  often  encloses  the  Virgin  and  Child,  and  is  the 


142  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

common  form  of  the  seals  of  religious  houses,  abbeys, 
colleges,  &c.  The  four  evangelists  are  represented 
respectively  as  a  lion,  a  calf,  a  man,  and  an  eagle,— St. 
Mark  being  the  lion,  the  calf  St.  Luke,  the  man  St. 
Matthew,  and  the  eagle  St.  John. 

Many  plants  are  used  as  symbols  in  Christian  art : 
the  vine,  as  typical  of  Christ,  during  Byzantine  times 


FIG.  172. — Moresque  Counter-change  pattern,  inlaid  marble. 

and  the  Middle  Ages.  In  Scripture  we  find  frequent 
allusions  to  the  vine  and  grapes  ;  the  wine-press  is 
typical  of  the  "Passion,"  as  we  read  in  Isaiah. 
The  passion-flower,  as  its  name  denotes,  was,  and 
is,  used  as  an  emblem  of  the  death  of  Christ. 
The  lily  is  the  emblem  of  purity,  and  has  always 


THE    IRIS    OR  FLEUR-DE-LIS  143 

been  used  as  the  attribute  of  the  Virgin  Mary  in 
pictures  of  the  Annunciation.  We  find  this  plant 
often  engraved  on  the  tombs  of  early  Christian  virgins. 
From  the  iris,  formerly  called  a  lily,  is  derived  the 
flower  de  luce,  or  fleur-de-lis^  one  of  the  finest  con- 
ventional renderings  of  any  flower ;  it  was  much 
used  as  a  decoration  in  sculpture,  painting,  and  weav- 


FIGS.  173  and  174. — Interchange  ornament. 

ing  during  the  thirteenth  and  following  centuries. 
It  was  the  royal  insignia  of  France  ;  mediaeval  Florence 
bore  it  on  her  shield  and  on  her  coin,  the  fiorino  ; 
and  it  was  used  in  the  crowns  of  many  sove^igns, 
from  King  Solomon  down  to  our  own  Queen.  The 
trefoil  is  an  emblem  of  the  Trinity,  and  is  a  common 
form  in  Gothic  decoration. 

The  symbolic  and  mnemonic  classes  have  now  been 


144  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

described,  and  the  cesthetic  alone  remains.    ^Esthetic 
form  we  owe  to  the  clearness  and  directness  of  the 
Greek  mind.     The  Greeks  were  contented  with  the 
simple  solution  of  the  problem  before  them,  which 
was  to  beautify  what   they  had   in  hand.     If  they 
wanted   allegorical  subjects   they  confined   them  to 
their  figure  subjects,  and  being  thus  freed  from  other 
disturbing   elements,  they  concentrated  their  whole 
attention  on   perfecting  floral  form.     They  attained 
perfection    in   this  as  they  did    in    their  figures,  by 
correcting  the  peculiarities  of  the  individual   by  a 
study  of  the  best  specimens  of  a  whole  class ;  and 
thus  succeeded  in  making  the  most  perfect  type  of 
radiating  ornament,  and  of  adapting  it  to  sculpture 
and   painting,   on   flat   and   curved   surfaces.      This 
ornament  has  perfect  fitness,  for  you  can  neither  add 
to   it  nor   take  away   from    it   without   spoiling   its 
perfection.     The  same  may  be  said,  only  in  a  minor 
degree,  of  the  colour  applied  to  the  carved  patterns 
of  the  Saracens  and  Moors :  they  are  both  aesthetic 
works,  solely  created  for  their  beauty.     A  symphony 
in  music  is  a  composition  of  harmonious  sounds ;  it 
has  little  subject-matter,  and  is  analogous  to  aesthetic 
ornament,  only  the  ear  is  charmed  by  the   former, 
as  the  eye  is  by  the  latter. 


APPENDIX 

ON   THE   ORDERS   OF   ARCHITECTURE 

IT  seemed  to  me  that  a  short  chapter  on  the  orders 
would  be  useful  to  students,  not  only  because 
so  much  ornament  is  used  as  an  enrichment  to 
architecture  itself,  but  also  because  a  very  much 
larger  proportion  of  it  is  used  in  conjunction  with 
architecture,  and  without  some  slight  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  the  ornament  and  the  architecture,  instead 
of  setting  off  each  other's  characteristic  beauties,  are 
apt  to  spoil  one  another.  The  rigid  lines  of  architect- 
ure should  act  as  a  foil  to  the  graceful  curves  of 
ornament,  and  the  plain  faces  should  not  only  set  off 
fretted  surfaces,  but  make  the  undulations  of  carved 
ornament  precious.  When  I  speak  of  ornament,  I 
include  the  highest  form  of  it,  the  human  figure,  and 
I  may  point  to  the  Doric  frieze  of  the  Greeks  as  a 
brilliant  example  of  success.  This  conjunction  of 
ornament  and  architecture,  however,  demands  high 
qualities  in  the  ornament,  and  insight  in  the  artists 
as  to  what  is  wanted  for  mutual  contrast  or  emphasis ; 
and  if  this  be  successfully  accomplished,  I  think  it 

L 


146  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

must  be  conceded  that  the  combined  work  gives  a 
finer  result  than  the  uncombined  excellence  of  each. 

Mean  ornament,  whether  of  figures  or  plants,  tends 
to  degrade  the  architecture  with  which  it  is  associated, 
and  may  spoil  it  by  the  main  lines  not  properly 
contrasting  with  the  adjacent  architectural  forms,  or 
by  the  ornament  being  on  too  large  a  scale.  I  have 
seen  in  modern  work,  the  stately  dignity  of  a  grand 
room  utterly  destroyed  by  colossal  figures.  Michel- 
angelo, in  his  superb  ceiling  at  the  Sistine  Chapel, 
has  by  use  of  gigantic  figures  dwarfed  the  vast  chapel 
into  a  doll's  house.  I  may  add  that  there  is  monu- 
mental colouring  as  well  as  monumental  form :  the 
finest  examples  of  such  colouring  may  be  seen  in 
many  of  the  grand  buildings  in  Italy  and  at  Con- 
stantinople, notably  at  St.  Mark's  and  at  Sta,  Sophia  ; 
but  you  may  also  see  magnificent  halls  and  churches, 
coloured  to  look  like  French  plum-boxes. 

The  elaborate  system  of  proportioning  parts  to  one 
another  and  to  the  whole,  which  is  so  important  in 
architecture  as  to  be  its  main  characteristic,  is  equally 
valuable  for  the  division  of  spaces  for  ornament. 

Mouldings  which  form  so  great  a  feature  in  archi- 
tecture as  to  have  given  rise  to  the  saying  that 
"  mouldings  are  architecture,"  give  lessons  in  elegance 
of  shape,  and  in  the  proper  contrast  bf  forms,  that 
are  useful  to  the  ornamentalist  who  has  to  design 
the  shapes  of  small  objects  ;  while  the  Corinthian 
capital  has  been  the  prototype  of  most  of  the  floral 
capitals  up  to  the  present  day. 

It  is  admitted  that  in  those  periods  of  history 
when  architecture,  sculpture,  and  painting  attained 
their  highest  excellence,  the  painter,  sculptor,  and 


ORDERS    OF   ARCHITECTURE  147 

architect  have  not  only  sympathized  with  one  another, 
but  each  one  has  been  no  mean  judge  of  the  sister 
arts.  At  the  Renaissance,  and  immediately  before 
it,  artists  are  to  be  found  who  were  goldsmiths, 
sculptors,  painters,  and  architects,  and  some  few  who 
were  poets,  musicians,  and  engineers  as  well. 

The  origin  of  the  orders  was  probablyin  the  verandah 
of  the  Greek  wooden  hut.  In  some  of  the  paintings  on 
the  Greek  vases  may  be  seen  the  processes  by  which 
the  Doric  and  Ionic  capitals  were  evolved ;  but  for  our 
purpose,  which  is  not  archaeology,  only  some  of  the 
best  examples  need  be  referred  to,  after  the  wooden 
hut  had  been  converted  into  a  marble  temple. 

An  order  consists  of  a  column  supporting  an 
architrave,  frieze,  and  cornice,  which  is  called  the 
entablature.  The  column  generally  consists  of  a 
shaft,  a  capital,  and  a  base,  except  in  the  Doric 
columns  of  the  Greeks  and  early  Romans,  which 
were  baseless.  The  capital  was  the  capping-piece 
which  you  now  see  put  on  the  tops  of  story-posts 
by  carpenters  to  shorten  the  bearing  of  the  bressum- 
mer.  The  architrave  was  what  we  now  call  a  bres- 
summer,  and  bore  the  trusses  of  the  roof;  the  fascias 
of  the  architrave  show  that  in  some  instances  this 
bressummer  was  composed  of  three  balks  of  timber, 
each  projecting  slightly  over  the  one  below.  The 
frieze  was  the  wide  band  immediately  above  the 
architrave  and  below  the  cornice,  comprising  the 
triglyphs  or  ends  of  the  trusses,  and  the  filling  in 
between  them,  which  is  called  the  metope.  The 
metopes  were  left  open  in  early  Greek  temples,  but 
were  eventually  filled  with  sculpture.  The  cornice 
was  the  projecting  boarded  eaves ;  while  the  slanting 


FIG.  175.— The  Parthenon.    Greek  Doric  ;  enlarged  section  of  annulets  at  A. 


THE    GREEK    DORIC    ORDER  149 

undersides  of  the  mutules  were  copied  from  the 
slanting  timbers  of  the  roof. 

I  will  speak  first  of  the  Greek  orders,  not  only 
because  they  were  the  earliest,  but  because  the 
Greeks  showed  the  greatest  artistic  sensibility  in  their 
choice  of  forms,  in  the  composition  of  lines,  and  in 
their  arrangements  for  light  and  shade.  I  begin  with 
the  DORIC.  The  shaft  is  conical,  and  fluted  with 
twenty  shallow  segmental  flutes  that  finished  under 
the  capital,  which  consists  of  a  thick  square  cap 
called  the  abacus,  with  a  circular  echinus  under  it, 
finished  at  the  bottom  with  rings  called  annulets,  and 
a  little  below  them  is  a  deep  narrow  sunk  chase 
called  the  necking,  and  the  shaft  has  no  base. 

The  Greeks  were  a  seafaring  people,  mainly  in- 
habiting the  sea-shore,  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago, 
and  the  edges  of  Asia  Minor,  and  were  thus  acquainted 
with  the  forms  of  the  sea  and  of  shells.  The  echinus 
of  the  Doric  capital  resembles  the  shell  of  the  sea- 
urchin,  or  echinus,  when  it  has  lost  its  spines,  and  was 
probably  called  after  it.  The  ovolo  moulding  that 
was  most  used  was  called  the  cyma  or  wave.  At 
the  Parthenon,  the  finest  example  of  the  Doric,  the 
architrave  is  plain,  and  was  once  adorned  with  golden 
shields  and  inscriptions ;  it  is  capped  by  a  square 
moulding  called  the  taenia  or  band  ;  the  frieze,  with  its 
square  cymatium,  is  capped  with  a  carved  astragal, 
and  is  divided  longitudinally  by  the  triglyphs,  project- 
ing pieces,  ornamented  with  two  whole  and  two  half 
vertical  channels,  from  which  the  word  triglyph  takes 
its  name  ;  below  the  taenia  is  a  narrower  square 
moulding  the  width  of  the  triglyph,  and  beneath  it, 
ornamented  with  drops  called  guttae.  I  may  point 


150  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

to  this  as  a  most  artistic  device  both  to  relieve  the 
monotony  of  the  taenia  and  to  weld  the  architrave 
with  the  frieze.  The  triglyphs  begin  at  the  angles  of 
the  frieze,  and  range  centrally  over  all  the  rest  of 
the  columns,  with  an  additional  triglyph  between 
each,  though  in  the  frieze  over  the  larger  central  open- 
ing of  the  Propylaeum  there  are  two  intermediate 
triglyphs ;  the  nearly-square  metopes  between  the 
triglyphs  are  filled  with  figure-sculpture.  The  cornice 
consists  of  the  square  mutule  band,  from  which  the 
mutules  project,  whose  slanting  underside  is  enriched 
with  drops  ;  and  above  the  mutules  is  their  capping, 
a  narrow  fascia  under  the  corona  ;  the  corona  or  main 
projecting  member  of  the  cornice  is  throated  at  the 
bottom,  and  its  capping  consists  of  a  wide  fillet, 
deeply-throated,  with  a  hawk's-bill  moulding  under  it. 
These  together  form  the  most  superb  piece  of  archi- 
tectural work  that  exists,  and  has  called  forth  the 
rapturous  admiration  of  all  the  tasteful  in  the  world, 
from  the  time  it  was  built  to  the  time  of  Ernest 
Renan,  one  of  its  latest  distinguished  admirers. 

I  have  lingered  over  this  order  because  it  is  a 
masterpiece  for  all  time.  Those  who  have  seen  it  in 
England  alone  are  possibly  convinced  that  this  praise 
has  been  ill-bestowed  ;  yet  even  these  would  change 
their  opinion  if  they  saw  it  when  perfectly  white  on 
a  clear  day  in  bright  sunshine ;  but  in  London,  even 
at  its  best,  the  clear  air  and  fierce  sun  of  Athens  is 
wanting,  as  well  as  the  pentelic  marble,  and  the  chances 
are  that  the  sculpture  in  the  metopes  has  been 
left  out.  This  Doric  of  the  Greeks  is  true  architect- 
ure, fitted  to  the  climate,  and  made  by  men  of  genius 
to  charm  the  most  gifted  race  the  world  has  seen.  To 


THE    GREEK    IONIC    ORDER  151 

the  Greek  architect  no  thought  and  no  labour  was  too 
great  in  designing  his  building,  to  form  it  so  that  the 
sun  would  play  melodies  on  it  from  dawn  to  dusk.  Such 
truly  national  architecture  cannot  be  imported  into  a 
different  climate  without  losing  most  of  its  effect,  nor 
can  it  be  transferred  to  a  coarse  and  opaque  material 
without  losing  much  of  its  charm  ;  while  its  sculpture, 
the  finest  the  world  has  yet  seen,  portrayed  national 
traditions  or  events  connected  with  its  faith.  But  even 
here  in  London,  if  you  see  paraphrases  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture just  painted  white  on  a  clear  sunshiny  day,  you 
will  see  a  faint  reflex  of  its  pristine  glory.  The  rising 
moon  that  the  sun  makes  on  the  echinus,  contrasted 
with  soft  graduated  warm  shades  and  sharp  blue 
shadows,  is  the  finest  thing  an  architect  has  ever  com- 
passed. The  splendid  sculpture  that  adorned  its 
metopes  may  be  seen  in  the  Elgin  room  of  the  British 
Museum.  This  one  example  is  a  model  for  those  who 
seek  perfection  in  exquisite  simplicity,  for  almost  all 
the  mouldings  are  square  ones,  and  there  is  no  enrich- 
ment beyond  the  highest  figure-sculpture,  and  one 
little  carved  astragal ;  and  I  may  add,  that  the  perfec- 
tion of  the  whole  composition  of  the  Temple  is  as 
great  as  that  of  this  part. 

THE  IONIC. 

The  example,  given  on  account  of  its  simplicity, 
is  from  the  Temple  on  the  river  Ilissus.  The 
column  differs  from  that  of  the  Doric  by  being  of 
slenderer  proportions,  by  having  twenty-four  deep 
elliptical  flutes  with  fillets  in  its  shaft,  by  having  a 
cushioned  capital  inserted  between  the  thin  moulded 


FIG.  176.— Entablature,  capital  and  base  of  the  Greek  Ionic  Temple  on  the  Ilissus. 


THE    GREEK   IONIC    ORDER  153 

abacus,  and  a  shallow  echinus  carved  with  the  egg 
and  tongue.  The  peculiarity  of  this  cushioned  cap  is, 
that  each  side  of  the  front  and  back  faces  are  formed 
into  volutes,  and  come  down  considerably  below  the 
bottom  of  the  capital,  and  are  carved  on  the  faces  with 
a  shell  spiral.1  The  junctions  of  the  plain  surfaces  of 
the  volutes  with  the  projecting  circular  echinus  are 
masked  by  a  half  honeysuckle.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  shaft  is  a  circular  pedestal  or  base  of  slight  pro- 
jection, consisting  of  an  upper  and  lower  torus  joined 
by  a  hollow  (trochilus),  the  upper  torus  being  hori- 
zontally fluted  and  the  lower  one  plain,  and  there  is 
no  square  plinth. 

In  this  case  the  architrave  is  deep  and  without 
fascias,  though  the  Ionic  order  has  mostly  three 
fascias  ;  its  capping  (cymatium)  consists  of  a  fillet 
with  a  plain  cyma  and  astragal  beneath.  The  frieze, 
which  has  no  triglyphs,  is  supposed  to  have  been 
sculptured  with  figures ;  its  cymatium  consists  of  an 
ogee  and  astragal,  to  admit  which  the  underside  of 
the  corona  is  deeply  hollowed  out ;  the  cymatium  of 
the  corona  consists  of  a  narrow  fillet  and  a  cyma. 
The  crowning  member  probably  only  existed  on  the 
raking  sides  of  the  pediment. 

As  this  is  not  a  treatise  for  architects,  but  a 
sketch  of  the  subject  for  ornamentalists,  one  example 
is  enough  to  show  the  difference  between  the  Doric 
and  Ionic,  but  the  capital  of  the  most  ornate  ex- 
ample, that  of  the  Erechtheum,  is  given  ;  its  main 
differences  from  the  former  one  being  these,  that  the 

1  From  Dr.  Richter's  discoveries  at  Cyprus,  it  seems  probable 
that  the  Ionic  volute  may  have  taken  its  rise  from  an  enlarge- 
ment of  the  Egyptian  lotus. 


154 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


ornaments  on  the  mouldings  are  carved  instead  of 
only  being  painted,  that  in  the  entablature  there  are 
three  fascias  to  the  architrave,  that  the  column  has 


Side  Elevation. 


Plan. 


Section. 


Section. 


FiG.  177. —  Side  elevation,  plan,  and  section  of  the  Ionic  capital,  from  the  Temple 
on  the  Ilissus. 

a  neck  carved  with  floral  ornaments  and  a  carved 
necking,  and  the  sweeps  of  the  capital  as  well  as 
the  spirals  of  the  volutes  are  more  numerous. 


THE   GREEK   IONIC   ORDER 


155 


FIG.  178. — Greek  Ionic  ;  half  of  the  Capitol  from  the  north  portico  of  the  Erechthenm  at 
Athens.     A  is  a  regular  guilloche  with  coloured  glass  beads  in  the  eyes, 


1 56 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


I  have  given  too  the  capital  of  the  internal  Ionic 
columns  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassse,  to  show  how 
much  it  is  improved  by  making  the  top  of  the 
capital  curved  instead  of  straight.  The  Ionic  is 
more  graceful  and  as  a  rule  more  ornate  than  the 
Doric,  but  is  not  so  majestic.  Capitals  from  the 


FIG.  179.— Capital  from  the  Temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Bassse.     Greek  Ionic. 

Erechtheum,  from  the  Temple  at  Bassae,  from  the  last 
Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  and  from  the  Mausoleum 
are  at  the  British  Museum. 


THE  CORINTHIAN. 

Callimachus,  according  to  Vitruvius,  invented  this 
capital,  and  is  supposed  to  have  lived  about  396  B.C., 


THE    GREEK    CORINTHIAN    ORDER  157 

forty  years  before  Alexander  the  Great  was  born 
Besides  the  beauty  of  this  order  of  the  choragic 
monument  of  Lysikrates,  it  is  the  only  undoubted 
and  complete  Greek  specimen  that  we  have  in 
Europe.  The  main  importance  of  the  invention, 
besides  its  intrinsic  beauty,  is  its  being  adopted  by  the 
Romans  as  their  favourite  order  and  used  throughout 
their  dominions.  I  give  you  here  the  story  Vitruvius 
tells  of  its  invention.  Besides  the  prettiness  of  the 
story,  it  serves  as  an  incitement  to  the  reflection,  that 
if  those  whose  hand  and  eye  are  trained  will  only 
observe  what  they  see,  they  may  get  notions  for 
inventions. 

"A  marriageable  maid,  a  citizen  of  Corinth,  was 
taken  ill  and  died.  After  her  burial,  her  nurse 
gathered  the  things  in  which  the  maid  most  delighted 
when  she  was  alive,  put  them  into  a  basket,  and 
carried  them  to  the  grave  and  put  them  on  the  top, 
and  so  that  they  might  last  the  longer  in  the  open 
air,  covered  them  with  a  tile.  By  chance  this  basket 
was  put  on  an  acanthus  root.  The  acanthus  root 
meanwhile,  pressed  by  the  weight,  put  forth  its  leaves 
and  shoots  about  spring  time  ;  these  shoots  growing 
against  the  sides  of  the  basket,  were  forced  to  bend 
their  tops  by  the  weight  of  the  corners  of  the  tile 
and  to  make  themselves  into  volutes.  Then  Calli- 
machus,  who  from  the  elegance  and  subtlety  of  his 
sculpture  was  called  Catatechnos  by  the  Athenians, 
passing  by  that  grave,  noticed  the  basket  and  the 
tender  growth  of  leaves  round  it,  and  charmed  by 
the  style  and  novelty  of  its  form,  made  his  columns 
among  the  Corinthians  after  that  pattern."  (Vit.  lib. 
4,  cap.  i.  pp.  9,  10.) 


lUUUUUUUl 


FIG.  1 80.— Entablature,  capital  and  base  of  the  Lysikrates  monument.     Greek 
Corinthian.  • 


THE   GREEK    CORINTHIAN    ORDER  159 

A  Corinthian  capital  was  found  by  Professor  Cock- 
erell  in  the  Temple  at  Bassae,  supposed  by  him  to 
have  been  used  there.  Another  was  found  at  Athens 
by  Inwood,  and  there  is  a  graceful  capital  of  one 
of  the  engaged  Corinthian  columns  at  the  Temple 
of  Apollo  Didymaeus,  at  Branchidse,  near  Miletus,  of 
unknown  date. 

I  do  not  look  on  work  as  Greek  that  was  done 
after  the  second  century  B.C.,  when  Greece  became  a 
Roman  province. 

The  Corinthian  capital  of  the  monument  of  Lysi- 
krates  is  more  than  one  and  a  half  times  as  high 
as  the  lower  diameter  of  the  column,  while  the  Doric 
capital  of  the  Parthenon  is  only  about  half  a 
diameter  to  the  necking,  and  the  Ionic  capital  of  the 
Erechtheum  about  eight-tenths. 

The  abacus  of  the  capital  is  deep  and  moulded,  is 
hollowed  out  horizontally  on  the  four  sides  in  plan, 
and  has  the  sharp  angles  of  the  abacus  cut  off.  The 
floral  cap  consists  of  a  bottom  range  of  sixteen  plain 
water  leaves,  about  half  the  height  of  the  eight 
acanthus  leaves  of  the  upper  row ;  these  have  a 
blossom  between  each  pair  of  leaves. 

Above  the  top,  and  at  the  sides  of  the  centre  leaf, 
on  each  of  the  four  sides  of  the  capital,  spring  two 
acanthus  sheaths,  out  of  each  sheath  spring  three 
cauliculi ;  the  one  most  distant  from  the  centre  forms  a 
volute  under  one  side  of  the  angle  of  the  abacus,  and 
is  supported  by  the  turned-over  top  leaf  of  the  sheath  ; 
the  lowest  cauliculi  form  two  volutes  touching  one 
another  at  the  centre.  The  third  cauliculus  comes  from 
between  the  two  former,  and  forms  much  smaller 
volutes  than  those  immediately  below  them,  touching 


i6o 


FIG.  181.— Capital  of  the  Lysikrates  monument.     Greek  Corinthian. 


THE  GREEK  CORINTHIAN  ORDER  161 

at  the  centre,  but  turning  the  reverse  way  to  those 
beneath  ;  from  the  middle  of  these  springs  a  honey- 
suckle, whose  top  is  as  high  as  the  top  of  the  abacus, 
and  there  is  a'  little  floral  sprig  between  the  angle 
volutes  and  the  honeysuckle,  to  relieve  the  bareness 
of  the  basket  or  bell.  The  foliage  of  this  capital  is 
exquisitely  graceful,  but  the  outline  of  the  capital  is 
not  happy.  The  entablature  is  Ionic,  to  leave  the  frieze 
clear  for  the  sculptured  history  of  Bacchus";  turning 
some  pirates  into  dolphins.  The  architrave  is  deep 
with  three  equal  fascias,  the  fa$e  of  each  one  inclined 
inwards,  and  a  cymatium.  Above  the  cymatium  of  the 
frieze  is  a  cornice  with  a  heavy  dentilled  bed  mould. 

The  Greeks  were  consummate  artists,  who  bore  in 
mind  the  adage  that  "  rules  are  good  for  those  who 
can  do  without  them,"  and  adapted  every  part  of  their 
buildings  to  produce  the  effect  of  light  and  shade  they 
wanted.  The  profiles  of  their  mouldings  were  mostly 
slightly  different  in  every  jexample  we  have,  and 
jnostly  approximate  to  conic  sections,  so  as  to  have 
the  shade  less  uniform,  segments  of  circles  being 
rarely  used  ;  and  there  was  in  Athens-  an  affluence  of 
excellent  figure  sculptors. 

It  has  always  seemed  to  me  that  the  slight  variations 
the  Greeks  made  in  their  profiles  to  get  perfection, 
and  their  passion  for  simplicity,  were  greatly  due  to 
their  intimate  knowledge  of  the  nude  human  figure. 
All  their  recruits  were  exercised  naked,  and  they  must 
have  noticed  that  the  perfecting  of  the  human  shape 
by  training  was  brought  about  by  slight  variations. 

THE  ROMAN  ORDERS. 

The  Romans,  great  people  as  they  were  in  sub- 

M 


162 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 


jugating,  governing,  and  civilizing  so  great  a  portion  of 
the  world,  and  possibly  on  that  very  account,  were 


X 


c 


t 


FIG.  182.— The  Tuscan  order. 


not  artistic  in  the  sense  that  the  Greeks  were.     The 
Romans  were  slaves  to  easy  rules  and  methods  ;  most, 


ROMAN  ORDERS;   THE  TUSCAN  AND  DORIC  163 

if  not  all,  the  profiles  of  their  mouldings  were  struck 
with  compasses,  and  they  were  almost  destitute  of  good 
figure  sculptors.  They  had,  however,  a  passion  for 
magnificence,  and  for  ornate  stateliness  and  dignity, 
and  they  rarely,  failed  to  get  these  in  their  public 
monuments." 

Besides  the  three  orders  which  were  taken  from  the 
debased  Greek  examples  of  their  own  time,  the 
Romans  added  two,  the  order  of  the  Tuscans,  and 
an  invention  of  their  own  called  the  Composite. 


THE  TUSCAN. 

The  Tuscan  is  described  by  Vitruvius,  lib.  4,  cap.  7, 
as  an  incomplete  Doric,  but  with  a  base  and  a  round 
plinth.  The  portico  of  St.  Paul's,  Covent  Garden,  by 
Inigo  Jones,  is  the  best  example  we  have  of  it  in 
London.  The  example  given  is  from  the  learned 
Newton  Vitruvius. 


THE  ROMAN  DORIC. 

One  of  the  earliest  examples,  with  the  exception  of 
that  at  Cora,  which  is  rather  debased  Greek  than 
Roman,  is  the  example  on  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus  at 
Rome,  finished  by  Augustus.  The  column  is  not 
fluted,  and  has  no  base,  and  the  capital  has  been 
greatly  altered  from  that  of  the  best  Greek  examples. 
The  abacus  has  a  cymatium  ;  the  echinus  has  been 
reduced  in  depth,  and  is  an  ovolo,  and  the  annulets  are 
merely  three  plain  fillets  ;  the  column  too  has  a  neck 
and  a  necking.  In  the  entablature  the  architrave  is 


J J 


FIG.  183.— Roman  Doric.     From  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus. 

The  crowning  members  of  the  cornice  are  conjectural,  for  the  whole  has  been  broken  away 
See  Desgodetz. 


OOflXDOKIXJ 


¥IG.  184. — Roman  Ionic.     Entablature,  capital,  and  base  of  an  angle  column,  at 
the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis. 


1 66  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

shallower  than  in  the  Greek  examples.  In  the  frieze 
the  triglyphs  are  over  the  centres  of  the  angle  columns ; 
the  guttae  are  the  frustums  of  cones,  while  those  of  the 
Greeks  were  cylinders  or  with  hollowed  sides  ;  the 
cornice  has  a  dentilled  bed  mould  ;  and  the  mutules 
have  disappeared,  but  their  edge  runs  through  and 
the  soffit  is  slanting,  and  ornamented  alternately  with 
coffers  and  small  guttae,  six  on  face  and  three  deep ; 
and  besides,  the  cymatium  of  the  corona  is  capped  by 
a  large  cavetto ;  this  in  the  Greek  examples  was  only 
the  crowning  member  of  the  slanting  sides  of  the 
pediment.  There  are  Roman  Doric  columns  at  the 
Colosseum,  at  Diocletian's  Baths  at  Rome,  and  else- 
where. The  Doric,  best  known  to  us,  was  elaborated 
by  the  Italian  architects  of  the  Renaissance. 

THE  ROMAN  IONIC. 

The  Ionic  was  not  much  more  to  the  taste  of  the 
Romans  than  the  Doric,  for,  with  the  exception  of  the 
examples  in  tall  buildings,  where  the  orders  were 
piled  up  one  over  the  other,  the  Temple  of  Fortuna 
Virilis  is  the  only  good  example,  although  there  is 
a  very  debased  one  at  the  Temple  of  Concord.  The 
columns  of  the  Temple  of  Fortuna  Virilis  somewhat 
resemble  the  Greco-Roman  ones  of  the  Temple  of 
Bacchus  at  Teos ;  they  have  similar  paltry  capitals,  and 
an  Attic  base,  but  their  truly  Roman  entablature  is 
very  notably  worse  than  that  at  Teos,  in  fact,  it  might 
be  used  as  an  example  of  what  to  avoid  in  profiling. 
The  cornice  is  crushingly  heavy  for  the  frieze  and 
architrave,  the  parts  are  disproportionate,  the  corona 
having  almost  disappeared  to  make  room  for  the 


7 


FIG.  185.— Roman  Corinthian.     Entablature,  capital,  and  base  of  the  Pantheon. 


i68  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

extra  crowning  member,  and  the  floral  ornaments  on 
some  of  the  mouldings  are  gigantic.  Its  main  im- 
portance to  us  is  from  the  use  made  of  it  by  the 
Renaissance  architects,  some  of  whom,  however, 
greatly  improved  its  appearance,  by  making  it  a 
four-faced  capital,  by  adding  a  necking  and  putting 
festoons  from  the  eyes,  thus  giving  the  capital  greater 
depth  and  importance. 


THE  ROMAN  CORINTHIAN. 

The  magnificence  of  this  capital  took  the  Romans, 
so  that  good  examples  of  the  other  orders,  except  of 
the  Composite,  are  rare.  As  I  said  before,  the  only 
undoubted  Greek  Corinthian  order  that  has  come 
down  to  us  is  that  of  the  Lysikrates  monument, 
though  we  have  many  Greco-Roman  examples.  The 
best  Roman  example  I  can  give  you  is  that  of  the 
Pantheon  ;  the  existing  portico  is  believed  by  M. 
Chedanne  to  be  a  copy  of  Agrippa's,  made  in  the 
days  of  Septimius  Severus.  At  any  rate,  it  has  the 
comparative  simplicity  that  characterized  some  of  the 
buildings  just  before  our  era.  The  capital  has  two 
rows  of  eight  leaves,  the  upper  row  not  rising  to 
quite  so  great  a  height  above  the  lower  ones  as  these 
do  above  the  necking,  and  there  is  space  between 
the  upper  leaves  to  show  the  stalks  of  the  sheaths  of 
the  cauliculi;  the  inner  ones  finish  under  the  rim 
of  the  basket,  the  outer  ones  form  the  volutes  under 
the  angles  of  the  abacus,  and  above  these  a  curled 
leaf  masks  the  overhanging  of  the  angles  of  the 
abacus.  From  some  foliage  on  the  top  of  the  upper 


i69 


FIG.  186. — Roman  Corinthian.     Entablature  of  Jupiter  Tonans. 


170  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

middle  leaf,  a  stalk  runs  up  behind  the  cauliculi,  and 
blossoms  in  the  abacus. 

It  may  be  observed  that  the  cauliculi  of  the 
centre  and  of  the  volute  have  lost  the  floral  character 
and  become  stony.  The  shafts  are  unfluted,  being 
of  granite,  and  have  the  favourite  Roman  base,  a 
plain  upper  and  a  lower  torus,  with  two  scotias 
separated  by  double  astragals  and  fillets.  The  en- 
tablature consists  of  an  architrave  of  three  fascias, 
the  bottom  edge  of  whose  projections  are  moulded, 
the  whole  architrave  is  capped  with  a  cymatium 
consisting  of  a  wide  fillet  and  an  ogee  with  an 
astragal  beneath.  The  frieze  is  slightly  shallower 
than  the  architrave,  and  has  nothing  on  it  but  the 
inscription,  and  its  cymatium  is  the  counterpart  of 
that  of  the  architrave  on  a  smaller  scale.  The 
cornice  is  heavy,  and  its  bed  mould  consists  of  an 
uncut  dentil  band,  an  ovolo  carved  with  the  egg  and 
tongue,  and  an  astragal  carved  with  the  bead  and 
reel,  a  modilion  band  with  carved  modilions,  a 
shallow  corona,  and  a  deep  cyma-recta-cymatium 
with  fillets. 

I  have  added  the  fine  and  gigantic  capital  of  Mars 
Ultor  and  the  entablature  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  which  is 
overladen  with  ornament,  as  a  contrast  to  the  almost 
stern  simplicity  of  that  of  the  Pantheon. 

I  shall  only  draw  your  attention  to  two  points  in 
this  ornamentation,  the  omission  of  the  tongues  be- 
tween the  eggs,  leaving  only  the  upright  line,  and  the 
attempt  to  turn  the  egg  and  tongue  into  a  foliated 
form.  The  egg  itself  is  covered  with  ornament,  and 
is  set  in  the  centre  of  acanthus  leaves.  We  must 
praise  the  boldness  of  the  author,  who  has  given  us 


THE  ROMAN   COMPOSITE  171 

a  new  ornament,  but  deplore  his  want   of  tasteful 
invention  which  has  forced  him  to  give  a  bad  one. 
The  varieties  of  leaves  used  in  capitals  have  been 
mentioned  in  the  body  of  the  book. 

THE  ROMAN  COMPOSITE. 

This  order  has  been  called  the  Composite,  from  the 
mixture  of  Ionic  and  Corinthian  motives  in  its  capital. 
The  example  given  is  from  the  Arch  of  Titus,  erected 
to  celebrate  the  taking  of  Jerusalem  in  70  A.D.  The 
main  thing  to  be  remarked  is  the  capital ;  for  the 
entablature  is  Corinthian,  less  ornate  than  that  of 
Jupiter  Tonans  or  Jupiter  Stator,  and  very  inferior 
to  the  latter  in  its  proportions.  It  may  be  imagined 
that  all  the  foliage  above  the  upper  row  of  leaves 
in  a  Corinthian  capital  has  been  removed,  that  a 
carved  Ionic  echinus  has  been  put  in  at  the  level  of 
the  bottom  of  the  Corinthian  cauliculi,  that  on  the 
centre  of  the  echinus  there  is  a  calix,  from  which  a 
flower  runs  up  above  the  top  of  the  abacus,  and  from 
each  side  of  the  calix  spring  curved  bands  running 
into  the  hollow  of  the  abacus  and  ending  in  heavy 
volutes  coming  down  to  the  tops  of  the  upper  row  of 
leaves,  the  lower  parts  of  the  bands  and  the  spaces 
between  the  spirals  being  filled  with  foliage.  The  parts 
of  the  bell  thus  left  bare  by  the  omission  of  the  sheaths 
of  the  cauliculi  have  two  little  scrolls  of  foliage  to  cover 
them.  The  worst  fault  of  the  capital  is,  that  the  upper 
part  has  no  artistic  connection  with  the  lower,  and 
taken  merely  as  an  isolated  capital,  its  volutes  are  too 
ponderous  for  the  rest.  We  must,  however,  give  the 
Romans  credit  for  the  merits  of  the  invention.  They 


innnnm 


FIG.  187.— Roman  Corinthian.     Half  of  the  capital  of  Mars  Ultor. 


THE  ROMAN  COMPOSITE 


173 


saw  that  in  tall  columns,  and  in  this  case  the  columns 
are  on  pedestals,  the  volutes  of  Corinthian  Columns 


FIG.  188. — Roman  composite  capital  from  the  Arch  of  Titus. 

were  too   insignificant.     This  capital  when  once  in- 
vented took  the  Romans,  and  was  applied  everywhere. 


tnnnnnnnnff 


FIG.  189. — Roman  Composite.     Entablature,  capital,  and  base,  Arch  of  Titus. 


TEXT  BOOKS  ON  ARCHITECTURE     175 

It  was  the  practical  solution  for  a  practical  people 
of  a  want  that  was  felt.  Artistically  speaking,  it  was 
no  solution,  and  we  can  imagine  that  if  such  a  solution 
had  been  offered  to  the  Athenians  in  their  palmy 
days,  the  author  would  have  been  howled  at,  and 
hunted  out  of  the  city. 

I  may  mention  that  the  orders  that  have  passed 
through  the  hands  of  the  Italian  masters  and  been 
altered  by  them  are  not  Classical,  but  Renaissance. 

Those  who  wish  to  study  this  subject  will  find  the 
Greek  examples  in  Stuart  and  Rivett's  Antiquities  of 
Athens ;  in  Mr.  Penrose's  Principles  of  Athenian  Archi- 
tecture ;  in  the  books  published  by  the  Dilettanti 
Society ;  in  Cockerell's  Temple  of  Jupiter  Panhellenius 
at  ALgina  ;  in  Inwood's  Erectheion  ;  and  in  Wilkins' 
Antiquities  of  Magna  Grcecia.  J.  Pennethorne's 
Elements  and  Mathematical  Principles  of  the  Greek 
Architects  gives  many  examples  of  profiles:  "The 
Roman,"  in  Les  Edifices  Antiques  de  Rome,  by  Des- 
godetz  ;  Cresy  and  Taylor's  Architectural  Antiquities 
of  Rome  ;  Normand's  Parallel  of  the  Orders  ;  and  Mr. 
Phene  Spiers'  Orders  of  Architecture. 


A  CHAPTER  ON  THE  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
SOME  FIGURES  AND  CURVES  IN  PRAC- 
TICAL PLANE  GEOMETRY  USEFUL  IN 
ORNAMENT. 

DEFINITIONS  and  names  of  figures  from  i  to  13. 

An  Equilateral  triangle  is  a  triangle  which  has 
three  equal  sites.  (Fig.  I.) 

An  Isosceles  triangle  is  that  which  has  only  two 
sides  equal.  (Fig.  2.) 

A  Scalene  triangle  is  that  which  has  three  unequal 
sides.  (Fig.  3.) 

A  Right-angled  triangle  is  that  which  has  a  right 
angle.  (Fig.  4.) 

An  Acute-angled  triangle  is  that  which  has  three 
acute  angles.  (Fig.  5.) 

A  Parallelogram  is  a  four-sided  figure  which  has 
its  opposite  sides  parallel.  (Fig.  6.) 

A  Rhombus  is  a  four-sided  figure  which  has  all 
its  sides  equal,  but  its  angles  are  not  right  angles. 

(Fig.  70 

A  Lozenge  is  a  square  set  angle-wise.     (Fig.  8.) 

NOTE. — A  square,  an  oblong,  a  rhombus,  and  a  rhomboid  are 
all  species  of  parallelograms, 


177 


FIG. 


FIG.  2 


FIG  3 


FIG. 


FIG.  5 


FIG.  6 


FIG   7 


iy8  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

A  Diamond  is  composed  of  two  equilateral  triangles 
set  back  to  back.  (Fig.  9.) 

All  other  four-sided  figures  are  called  Trapeziums. 
If  one  opposite  pair  of  sides  be  parallel,  and  the  other 
pair  not,  the  figure  is  called  a  Trapezoid.  (Fig.  10.) 

Polygons. — A  Polygon  is  a  plane  rectilineal  figure 
contained  by  more  than  four  straight  lines. 

A  Regular  Polygon  is  that  which  has  its  sides 
equal,  and  its  angles  also  are  equal. 

An  Irregular  Polygon  may  have  unequal  sides  and 
unequal  angles,  or  unequal  sides  and  equal  angles,  or 
equal  sides  and  unequal  angles.  In  this  chapter 
regular  polygons  are  only  treated  of. 

Polygons  are  named  according  to  the  number  of 
sides  or  angles  they  may  have.  A  polygon  having 


5  side 

s  is  a  Pentagon. 

13  sid( 

js  is  a  Tridecagon. 

6       , 

a  Hexagon. 

H 

a  Tetradecagon. 

7       , 

a  Heptagon. 

15 

a  Pentadecagon. 

8       , 

an  Octagon. 

16 

a  Hexadecagon. 

9       , 

a  Nonagon. 

17 

a  Heptadecagon. 

10          } 

a  Decagon. 

18 

an  Octadecagon. 

II 

an  Undecagon. 

19 

a  Nonodecagon. 

12          , 

a  Dodecagon. 

20 

a  Bisdecagon. 

Figs.  11,  12,  and  13  are  self-explanatory. 

Fig.  14.  From  a  given  point  D  without  to  draw 
Tangents  to  a  given  circle  ABC. 

Join  E  the  centre  of  the  circle  D. 

Bisect  D  E  in  F.  With  F  as  centre  and  F  E  radius 
describe  the  circle  D  B  E  cutting  the  given  circle  in 
A  and  B.  Draw  the  required  tangents  from  D  to 
touch  the  given  circle  at  A  and  B.  N.B. — A  tangent 
to  a  circle  or  arc  is  always  at  right  angles  to  a  radius 
drawn  to  the  point  of  contact. 


179 


FIG.  9 


FIG.  10 


TANG  EN  T 


SEGMENT 

LUNETTE: 


SECTOR, 


FIGS.  12  and  13 


FIG.  14 


i8o  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

Fig.  15.  To  draw  an  Exterior  Tangent  to  two 
given  circles  A  B  and  C  D  K. 

Join  the  centres  E  and  F  cutting  the  circumference 
of  the  larger  circle  at  K.  Bisect  E  F  in  G.  From  K 
in  the  line  K  F  cut  off  a  part  K  P  equal  to  the  radius 
of  the  smaller  circle  E  B. 

With  centre  G  and  radius  K  F  describe  a  semicircle  ; 
with  F  as  centre  and  radius  F  P  describe  a  circle- 
The  semicircle  cuts  this  circle  at  H.  Join  F  H,  and 
produce  it  to  C.  At  E  draw  E  A  parallel  to  F  C. 
Join  A  C,  which  is  the  exterior  tangent  required. 

Fig.  1 6.  To  draw  an  Interior  Tangent  to  two 
given  circles  B  E  and  F  D. 

Join  the  centres  E  and  F.  Bisect  E  F  in  G,  and 
describe  a  semicircle  on  E  F.  From  K  on  the  larger 
circle  mark  off  K  J  and  E  F  equal  to  the  radius  of 
the  smaller  circle,  and  with  F  as  centre  and  F  J  as 
radius  describe  an  arc  passing  through  semicircle 
at  H.  Join  F  H  cutting  the  larger  circle  at  C,  and 
draw  E  A  parallel  to  F  H.  The  points  of  contact 
are  A  and  C,  through  which  the  interior  tangent  is 
drawn. 

Fig.  17.  Within  a  given  circle  to  describe  any 
Regular  Polygon — say  a  Pentagon. 

Draw  the  diameter  A  F  and  divide  it  into  the  same 
number  of  parts  as  the  required  polygon  is  to  have 
sides — in  this  case  it  will  be  five  parts.  To  divide 
the  diameter  into  the  number  of  equal  parts,  draw 
a  line  A  X  any  angle  to  A  F.  Set  off  any  convenient 
measurement  five  times  on  this  line.  Join  point  5  to 
F,  and  draw  the  lines  4,  4',  3,  3',  &c.,  parallel  to  5  F 
to  meet  the  diameter.  With  A  and  F  as  centre  and 
A  F  as  radius  describe  arcs  intersecting  at  L.  From 


FIG.  x6 


FIG.  17 


1 82  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

L  draw  a  line  through  the  Second  division  on  A  F  at 
point  2'  cutting  the  circumference  at  B.  Join  A  B. 
This  is  the  length  of  the  side  of  the  required  polygon. 
Set  off  the  length  of  the  side  A  B  around  the 
circumference  at  C,  D,  and  E.  Join  the  points  A,  B, 
C,  D,  E  to  complete  the  required  pentagon. 

N.B. — A  Regular  Hexagon  may  be  inscribed  in  a 
circle  by  setting  off  the  length  of  its  radius  six  times 
round  the  circumference,  and  joining  the  points. 

Fig.  1 8.  On  a  given  line  to  construct  any  Regular 
Polygon, — say  a  Pentagon. 

Produce  the  given  line  A  B  to  R,  and  with  B  as 
centre  and  A  B  as  radius  describe  a  semicircle  A  C  R. 
Divide  the  semicircle  into  as  many  parts  as  the 
polygon  is  to  have  sides — in  this  case  five.  Draw  a 
line  from  point  B  to  the  second  division  point  Q  C. 
Bisect  A  B  and  B  C  to  find  P,  which  will  be  the  centre 
of  a  circle  passing  through  the  points  ABC.  Mark 
off  the  points  D  and  E,  making  the  distances  C  D, 
D  E,  and  E  A  each  equal  to  A  B.  Join  C  D,  D  E, 
and  E  A  to  complete  the  required  polygon. 

Fig.  19.  Special  method  of  drawing  an  Octagon  in 
a  given  circle. 

Draw  two  diameters  B  F  and  H  D  at  right  angles 
to  each  other.  Bisect  angles  H  K  B  and  B  K  D  in 
the  lines  K  A  and  K  C.  Produce  the  lines  K  A,  K  C, 
to  meet  the  circumference  at  G  and  E.  The  eight 
points  thus  found  on  the  circumference  are  joined  to 
make  the  required  octagon. 

Fig.  20.  To  inscribe  an  Octagon  in  a  given 
square. 

With  each  corner  of  the  square  as  centres,  and  half 
the  diagonal  of  the  square  as  radius,  describe  arcs 


FIG.  18 


FIG.  19 


1 84  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

cutting  the  sides  of  the  square  at  F,  G,  H,  K,  &c. 
Join  these  points  to  complete  the  required  octagon. 

Fig.  21.  To  describe  a  circle  to  touch  two  given 
straight  lines  A  B  and  A  C,  one  point  of  contact 
being  given. 

Bisect  the  angle  B  A  C  in  A  D.  At  C  draw  a 
perpendicular  to  A  C,  meeting  AD  at  D.  With 
D  as  centre  and  D  C  as  radius  describe  the  required 
circle. 

Fig.  22.  To  inscribe  a  circle  in  a  given  triangle 
ABC. 

Bisect  any  two  of  the  angles  as  at  B  and  C. 
The  lines  of  bisection  intersect  at  D.  Produce  B  D 
to  E.  With  centre  D  and  distance  D  E  inscribe  the 
required  circle. 

Fig.  23.  A  square  being  given,  to  inscribe  four 
equal  circles  each  touching  two  others  and  two  sides 
of  the  square. 

Draw  the  diagonals  and  two  lines  parallel  to  the 
sides  through  the  centre  of  the  given  square.  Join 
the  extremities  of  the  latter  lines  to  obtain  the  points 
I,  2,  3,  and  4.  With  these  points  as  centres,  and 
i  E  drawn  perpendicular  to  C  A  as  radius,  inscribe  the 
four  required  circles. 

Fig.  24.  A  square  being  given,  to  inscribe  four 
equal  circles  each  touching  two  other  and  one  side  of 
the  square. 

Draw  the  diagonals  and  two  lines  through  the 
centre  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  given  square  A  B  C  D. 
Bisect  any  one  of  the  angles  made  by  a  diagonal 
and  one  of  the  sides  of  the  square,  as  at  D.  Produce 
the  line  of  bisection  until  it  meets  the  vertical  centre 
line  at  point  i.  With  the  central  point  O  as  centre 


i85 


FIG. 


FIG.  22 


E 
A 


FIG.  23 


FIG.  24 


186  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

and  O  i  as  radius,  describe  a  circle  to  obtain  the 
points  i,  2,  3, 4.  These  are  the  centres  of  the  required 
circles. 

N.B.— If  the  central  portion  made  by  the  meeting  of  the  four 
circles  were  removed,  the  remaining  parts  of  the  circles  would 
form  a  figure  known  as  the  quatrefoil,  a  form  common  in  archi- 
tecture. 

Fig.  25.  To  inscribe  six  equal  circles  in  a  given 
equilateral  triangle  ABC. 

Bisect  the  angles  of  the  given  equilateral  triangle 
as  at  E,  and  draw  the  bisection  lines  through  to  meet 
the  centre  of  each  side.  Bisect  the  angle  A  B  J  to 
obtain  the  point  D  on  C  K.  Through  D  draw  G  F 
parallel  to  A  B,  also  F  H  and  H  G  parallel  to  the 
sides  of  the  triangle.  With  D  as  centre  and  D  K  as 
radius  inscribe  one  of  the  required  circles,  and  with 
the  same  radius  and  F,  2,  H,  i,  and  G  as  centres 
inscribe  the  remaining  circles. 

Fig.  26.  (i)  Within  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  a 
hexagon.  (2)  Without  the  same  circle  to  describe  a 
hexagon.  (3)  Within  the  inner  hexagon  to  inscribe 
three  equal  circles  each  touching  each  other  and  two 
sides  of  the  hexagon. 

(i)  Mark  off  the  length  of  the  radius  of  the  given 
circle  B  D  F  six  times  on  the  circumference  as  at 
D  E  F,  &c.  Draw  the  three  diameters  A  D,  B  E,  and 
G  F,  and  produce  them  a  little  beyond  these  points. 
Join  the  points  G,  D,  E,  F,  &c.,  by  straight  lines  to 
produce  the  hexagon  within  the  given  circle.  (2) 
Bisect  the  angle  K  O  H,  the  line  of  bisection  will  cut 
the  circle  at  point  R.  Through  R  draw  H  K  parallel 
to  B  C.  With  O  as  centre  and  O  H  as  radius  describe 
a  circle  cutting  the  produced  diameters  at  K,  L,  M,  &c. 


J87 


FIG.  23 


FIG.  26 


188  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

Join  the  latter  points  to  produce  the  required  hexagon 
without  the  given  circle.  (3)  Join  the  points  G,  E,  A. 
This  will  obtain  the  points  i,  2,  3  on  the  diameters. 
Draw  1,4  perpendicular  to  G  B.  With  i,  4  as  radius 
and  i  as  centre  describe  one  of  the  required  circles. 
3  and  2  are  the  centres  of  the  other  two  required 
circles. 

Fig.  27.  Within  a  given  circle  to  inscribe  any 
number  of  equal  circles,  each  touching  the  circumfer- 
ence and  two  other  circles. 

Divide  the  circle  in  the  same  number  of  parts  as 
the  number  of  circles  required — in  this  case  five. 
Draw  the  five  radii.  Bisect  the  angles  B  D  A  and 
ADC.  Draw  E  F  perpendicular  to  D  A.  D  E  F 
is  a  triangle  any  two  angles  of  which  bisect  as  at  D 
and  E.  From  point  i  thus  obtained  on  D  A  and 
radius  i  A  inscribe  a  circle.  From  D  as  centre  and 
D  i  as  radius  describe  a  circle  cutting  the  five  radii  in 
points  i,  2,  3,  4,  5.  With  the  latter  points  as  centres 
and  i  A  as  radius  describe  the  remaining  required 
circles. 

Fig.  28.  This  problem  is  worked  in  the  same 
manner  as  Fig.  27,  seven  circles  being  inscribed  instead 
of  five  in  a  given  circle. 

Fig.  29.  To  inscribe  a  trefoil,  or  three  equal  semi- 
circles having  adjacent  diameters  in  a  given  circle. 

Divide  the  given  circle  into  six  equal  parts  by 
marking  off  the  length  of  the  radius  six  times  on  the 
circumference.  From  the  centre  D  to  these  six 
points  draw  radii.  Bisect  any  of  the  six  sectors  as  at 
E.  Draw  E  C  obtaining  F  on  one  of  the  radials. 
On  either  side  of  F  draw  lines  from  it  to  meet  the 
alternate  radials  perpendicular  to  B  D  and  D  C,  and 


i89 


FIG. 


FIG.  29 


IQO  THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT 

join  their  extremities,  thus  making  the  equilateral 
triangle  I,  2,  3.  On  the  sides  of  this  triangle  describe 
the  three  semicircles  required  by  using  points  I,  2, 
and  3  as  centres,  and  2  F  as  radius.  The  completed 
figure  is  the  trefoil,  and  the  inscribed  three  semicircles 
have  their  diameters  adjacent. 

Fig.  30.     To  describe  an  equilateral  triangle  within 
and  without  a  given  circle. 


Draw  six  radii  dividing  the  given  circle  into  six 
equal  parts.  Join  their  alternate  extremities  as  at 
L  M  N.  This  makes  the  required  equilateral  triangle 
within  the  circle.  Draw  tangents  to  the  circle  at  L  M 
and  N,  or  lines  at  right  angles  to  L  O,  M  O,  and  N  O. 
Produce  the  latter  radii  to  meet  the  tangents  at 
ABC.  A  B  C  is  the  equilateral  triangle  without  the 
circle. 

N.B.— It  will  be  seen  that  the  triangle  B  A  C  is  made  up  of 
four  similar  triangles  each  equal  to  L  M  N.  Also,  if  six  of  the 
smaller  triangles,  as  A  L  M,  were  placed  around  points  A  B  and 
C  a  hexagon  would  be  formed.  This  figure  is  very  useful  in 
designing  geometrical  and  other  repeating  all  over  patterns  in 
ornament. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT  191 


CONIC  SECTIONS. 

The  figures  known  as  the  Conic  Sections  are  the 
Ellipse,  the  Parabola,  and  the  Hyperbola. 

The  Cone  may  have  other  sections  in  addition  to 
these,  such  as  the  section  through  any  point  below 
the  apex,  on  the  axis,  and  taken  parallel  to  the  base  ; 
this  would  be  a  circle  >  and  a  section  through  the  apex 
perpendicular  to  the  base  would  be  an  isosceles 
triangle. 

The  Ellipse  is  the  curve  of  the  section  made  by  a 
plane  passing  obliquely  through  a  cone  from  side  to 
side. 

The  Parabola  is  the  curve  of  the  section  made  by 
a  plane  passing  through  a  cone  parallel  to  one  of  its 
sides. 

The  Hyperbola  is  the  curve  of  a  section  made  by 
a  plane  passing  through  a  cone  parallel  to  its  axis,  or 
inclined  at  a  greater  angle  to  its  base  than  its  side, 
but  not  through  its  apex. 

Fig.  31.  The  elevation  of  a  cone  is  shown  at 
ABC,  A  section  through  point  X  at  right  angles 
to  the  axis  of  the  cone  is  a  Circle.  A  section  passing 
through  and  across  the  cone  from  point  X,  but 
not  at  right  angles  to  the  axis,  is  an  Ellipse,  as  at 
X  i.  A  section  through  X  parallel  to  the  opposite 
side  A  C  is  a  Parabola,  as  at  X  2.  A  section  through 
X  parallel  to  the  axis,  as  at  X  3,  or  a  section  through 
X  at  any  other  angle  greater  than  the  angle  made  by 
the  side  and  base,  as  at  X  4,  is  a  Hyperbola. 

Figs.  32,  33,  and  34  show  the  actual  shape  of  the 
sections  X  I,  X  2,  and  X  3  respectively. 


192  THE   PRINCIPLES   OF   ORNAMENT      * 

Fig.  32.  In  this  figure  the  major  or  transverse  axis 
of  the  Ellipse  is  equal  to  X  i.  To  find  the  minor 
or  conjugate  axis  bisect  X  I  (Fig.  31)  in  H,  draw 
through  it  F  G  parallel  to  A  B,  drop  a  perpendicular 
from  F  to/,  and  describe  the  semicircle/ kg.  From 
H  drop  a  perpendicular  to  A  B,  and  produce  it  to  h 
to  meet  the  semicircle,  k  h  is  then  half  the  length  of 
the  minor  axis  of  the  Ellipse,  as  C  D.  Divide  A  E 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  and  A  G  into  the 
same  number.  Draw  from  C  lines  through  the 
divisions  as  i,  2,  3  &c.,  and  from  D  lines  to  i'  2'  3'  &c. 
The  curve  of  the  required  Ellipse  will  pass  through 
the  intersections  of  these  lines,  as  at  i"  3"  5"  &c. 

Fig.  33.  In  this  figure,  the  Parabola,  the  line  C  D 
is  equal  to  X  2  (Fig.  31),  while  A  B  is  twice  the  length 
of  D  2  (Fig.  31).  Divide  G  B  into  any  number  of 
equal  parts,  and  join  the  points  of  the  divisions  to  C. 
Divide  D  B  into  the  same  number  of  equal  parts,  and 
draw  lines  from  the  points  of  division  parallel  to  D  C 
to  meet  the  similar  numbered  lines  drawn  from  B  G ; 
through  these  meeting  points  the  curve  of  the  Parabola 
will  be  drawn. 

Fig.  34.  The  only  difference  between  the  working 
of  this  figure — the  Hyperbola — and  the  Parabola  is 
that  the  lines  which  in  the  Parabola  were  drawn 
parallel  to  G  B,  are  here  drawn  to  a  point  E  on  C  D 
produced,  C  D  being  equal  to  X  3  (Fig.  31).  This 
point  E  is  found  by  drawing  the  line  from  7  on  D  B 
to  E  on  CD  produced,  where  C  E  equals  twice 
X  O  (Fig.  31). 

Fig.  35.  To  describe  an  Archimedean  spiral  of  any 
number  of  revolutions — say  tliree,  the  longest  radius 
A  B  being  given. 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT  193 


c      o 


4   <T6    7      B 


O 


194          THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    ORNAMENT 

Divide  the  radius  A  B  into  three  equal  parts  for 
the  three  revolutions.  With  B  as  centre  and  B  A  as 
radius  describe  a  circle,  and  divide  it  into  any  number 
of  equal  parts — say  eight,  by  drawing  four  diameters. 
Each  of  the  three  divisions  on  A  B  is  divided  into 
eight  equal  parts.  With  centre  B  and  the  point  of 


FIG.  35.— Archimedean  Spiral. 

each  succeeding  division  as  radius,  describe  arcs, 
meeting  in  following  order  the  next  nearest  diameter 
as  shown  at  arcs  I  i",  2  2",  3  3'',  &c.  Through  point 
8  with  radius  B  8,  the  second  division,  describe  a 
circle,  and  through  point  16  with  centre  B  describe  a 
circle.  In  these  two  divisions  arcs  are  drawn  as 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  ORNAMENT  195 

described  above  for  the  division  A  8,  &c.>  to  the  next 
nearest  diameter.  The  spiral  is  then  drawn  through 
the  points  thus  formed  on  the  diameters,  which  mark 
its  path  as  at  i',  2',  3',  &c.,  until  it  ends  in  its  centre 
at  B. 

Fig.  36.  To  draw  Goldman's  Volute,  the  cathetus 
C  F  being  given. 

Divide  C  F  into  15  equal  parts.  With  C  as 
centre  describe  a  circle  A  E  B  to  form  the  eye  of  the 
volute,  making  the  diameter  3 -J-  of  these  parts.  Bisect 
A  C  and  C  B  in  I  and  4.  On  i  4  draw  a  square,  I,  2, 
3,  4.  Produce  the  sides  i  2,  2  3,  and  3  4  to  G,  H, 
and  I  respectively, 

Divide  I  C  into  three  equal  parts.  Draw  lines 
parallel  to  I  G  through  the  points  of  division  to  P 
and  L,  which  cut  the  line  C  2  in  the  points  6  and  10. 
Through  these  points  (6  and  10)  draw  lines  to  M  and 
O  parallel  to  E  H,  cutting  C  3  in  7  and  n.  In  the 
same  way  draw  lines  parallel  to  3  I  from  7  and  1 1  to 
N  and  R.  The  points  1,2,  3,  4,  5,  &c.,  will  then  form 
the  centres  of  the,  series  of  quadrants  which  are  to 
form  the  outer  spiral  that  begins  with  the  radius  i  F. 
To  describe  the  inner  spiral.  A'  F'  in  Fig.  36  (a)  is 
equal  to  A  F  (Fig.  36).  F'  S'  is  made  equal  to  the 
breadth  of  the  fillet  at  the  top  F  S.  V  F'  is  drawn 
at  right  angles  to  F'  A"  and  equal  to  C  I.  By  joining 
V  A'  and  drawing  T'  S'  parallel  to  V  F',  then  T  S' 
is  obtained  which  will  be  the  length  of  half  the  side 
of  the  square  for  drawing  the  inner  spiral.  The 
method  for  obtaining  the  inner  spiral  is  the  same  as 
for  the  outer. 

Fig.  37.  There  is  no  geometric  means  of  drawing 
a  perfect  catenary  curve ;  at  best  we  can  only  obtain 


196 


THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    ORNAMENT 


it  by  an  approximation  in  geometry.  The  curve  is 
formed  by  suspending  a  chain  from  two  points  and 
pricking  points  along  the  curve  of  the  chain.  These 


(a) 


V' 


FIG.  36. — Goldman's  volute. 

points  will  mark  the  path  of  the  catenary.  In  the 
accompanying  figure  three  catenary  curves  are  drawn 
from  a  chain  suspended  from  points  A  and  B. 

Fig.  38. — To  draw  a  cycloid  curve  when  \hzgenerat- 


THE  PRINCIPLES  OF   ORNAMENT 


197 


ing  circle  is  given.  In  order  to  find  the  length  of 
the  line  A  B  on  which  the  circle  rolls,  and  which 
must  be  the  length  of  the  circumference  of  the  given 
circle,  we  must  first  find  approximately  that  length  by 


FIG.  37.— Catenary  curves. 


FIG.  38. — Cycloid  curve. 


the  following  method.  Draw  the  vertical  diameter 
of  the  circle  D  C.  Draw  D  M  at  right  angles  to  D  C, 
and  make  it  three  times  the  length  of  the  radius  of  the 
circle ;  make  an  angle  of  30°  at  E,  and  draw  a  line 


i98  THE    PRINCIPLES    OF    ORNAMENT 

parallel  to  D  M  of  any  convenient  length.  The  line 
E  L  making  the  angle  of  30°  cuts  C  B  in  L.  Join 
ML.  M  L  is  the  approximate  length  of  half  the 
circumference.  Make  A  C  and  C  B  each  equal  to 
M  L.  Then  A  B  is  the  length  approximately  of  the 
circumference,  drawn  at  right  angles  to  C  D  on 
which  the  circle  rolls.  Divide  now  half  the  circle 
into  eight  equal  parts,  and  draw  a  line  from  E  S 
parallel  to  A  B,  and  equal  to  M  L.  Divide  E  S  into 
eight  equal  parts.  From  the  points  I,  2,  3,  &c.,  draw 
lines  parallel  to  A  C.  With  centres  i',  2',  3',  &c.,  and 
with  radius  E  C,  describe  arcs  cutting  them  at  i" r,  2", 
3",  &c.  The  curve  A  D,  which  must  be  drawn  by  free- 
hand, will  then  pass  through  these  points.  Complete 
the  cycloid  by  drawing  D  B  in  a  similar  manner.  The 
length  A  B  can  also  be  found  approximately  by 
dividing  C  D  into  seven  equal  parts,  and  taking 
A  B  =  22  of  those  parts. 


GLOSSARY   OF   TERMS    USED    IN 
ORNAMENT 

Many  of  the  terms  which  appear  in  this  Glossary  have  been  explained 
in  the  previous  chapters.  The  reader  should  refer  back  to  the  text  when 
any  of  the  terms  are  inadequately  described  here. 


ics  •,  the  science  of  the  beautiful. 

^Esthetic,  when  applied  to  ornament,  not  only  means  "beautiful,"  but 
that  beauty  was  the  sole  aim  of  its  production,  and  distinguishes  it 
from  symbolic  and  mnemonic  ornament.  See  page  143. 

Allegory,  the  representation  of  one  thing  under  the  image  of  another. 
It  was  mostly  confined  to  human  figures,  but  to  aid  its  comprehen^ 
sion  attributes  were  added.  Among  the  Pagans  strength  was  shown 
as  Hercules  with  his  club  ;  health  as  a  woman  with  a  serpent  ; 
rivers  were  represented  as  gods  with  crowns  of  sedge  or  rushes  ; 
towns  as  gods  or  goddesses  with  mural  crowns.  Among  the  Chris- 
tians, a  man  holding  a  lamb,  or  a  shepherd  with  his  flock,  was  an 
allegorical  representation  of  Christ  the  Good  Shepherd  ;  the  seven 
cardinal  virtues  and  the  seven  deadly  sins  were  represented  by  alle- 
gorical figures,  and  each  had  its  proper  attributes. 

Alternation,  two  different  forms  in  succession,  or  alternating  with  each 
other.  Figs.  67,  75,  and  76. 

Anthemion,  a  radiating  ornament  with  a  palmate  outline  ;  the  honey- 
suckle ornament  of  the  Greeks. 

Attributes,  the  things  assigned  to  any  one.  Amongst  the  Pagans  the 
eagle  and  thunderbolt  to  Jupiter,  the  trident  to  Neptune,  the  pea- 
cock to  Juno,  &c.  Amongst  the  Christians  the  nimbus  was  the 
attribute  of  divinity,  saintship,  or  martyrdom,  the  lily  of  chastity,  &c. 

Balance,  equilibrium  or  counterpoise.  In  compositions  that  are  not 
symmetrical  the  iveight  of  the  masses  must  be  alike  on  either  side  of 


200  GLOSSARY 

a  central  axis  ;  in  those  of  symmetrical  outline  with  different  fillings 
there  must  be  equality  of  weight  in  the  fillings.  Renaissance  orna- 
ment affords  many  admirable  examples  of  balance.  See  page  46, 
and  Figs.  126  and  131. 

Banding,  decorating  by  means  of  horizontal  stripes,  mostly  filled  with 
ornament.  Figs.  n6and  117. 

Catenary,  the  curve  formed  by  a  chain  hanging  from  two  points.  Fig.  27. 

Cauliculus,  the  shoot  or  stem  of  a  plant  forming  the  volutes  under  the 
angles  of  the  abacus,  and  those  in  the  centre  of  each  face  of  a  Cor- 
inthian capital ;  in  modern  works  this  name  is  mostly  confined  to 
the  central  spirals,  the  outer  ones  being  called  volutes.  Figs.  180, 
181,  185,  187,  and  188. 

Checkering,  covering  a  surface  with  a  square  pattern  like  a  chess-board, 
in  which  the  colour  or  the  ornament  alternates.  The  outline  is 
formed  by  equidistant  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  crossing  one 
another.  Figs.  98  and  99. 

Colour,  apart  from  the  literal  meaning  of  the  word,  is  a  vague  technical 
term  to  express  character  and  contrast  in  ornament. 

Complexity,  interweaving  or  intricacy ;  the  opposite  of  simplicity. 
Ornament  in  which  the  leading  forms  are  not  apparent,  is  mainly 
.  to  be  found  in  Celtic,  Saracenic,  Moresque,  and  Gothic  ornament. 
It  is  also  characteristic  of  the  decadent  periods  of  all  historic  styles. 

Contrast,  the  opposition  of  dissimilar  figures  or  positions,  by  which  one 
contributes  to  the  effect  of  the  other  ;  e.  g.  the  straight  line  with  the 

;  circle,  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  alternating ;  in  colour  black  with 
white,  &c.  ;  ornamental  forms  where  flat  and  sharp  curves  contrast 
with  one  another  ;  a  plain  space  alternating  with  an  ornamented  one, 
or  an  enriched  moulding  round  a  plain  panel,  or  vice  versa,  &c.  See 
page  43- 

Conventional.  This  is  a  word  of  great  elasticity.  In  early  decoration 
natural  objects  were  highly  conventionalized  through  the  want  of 
skill  in  the  artists,  who  could  not  copy,  but  only  portray  their  im- 
pressions, thus  the  Egyptians  and  early  Greeks  represented  water 
by  the  zig-zag.  These  early  conventionalized  forms  were  sometimes 
perpetuated  through  religious  conservatism,  after  the  artists  had 
become  skilful.  All  ornament  is  more  or  less  conventional,  but  the 
term  is  usually  applied  to  designate  that  ornament  in  which  the 
most  beautiful  and  characteristic  floral  forms  have  been  abstracted 
and  adapted  to  the  material  employed  and  the  effect  wanted.  The 
styles  most  characterized  by  conventional  ornament  are  the  Greek 
and  the  early  Gothic  ;  they  are  equally  effective  as  ornament  in  their 
respective  countries,  but  the  Greek  has  all  the  grace  and  vigour  of 
the  highest  plant  form,  while  Gothic  has  mostly  only  the  vigour. 


GLOSSARY  201 

Figs.  49 — 54.  The  Romans  and  the  Renaissance  architects  also 
successfully  conventionalized.  Figs.  91  and  129.  Convention  now 
too  often  means  leaving  out  all  grace  and  vigour.  Saracenic- Persian 
ornament  is  perhaps  the  least  conventionalized  of  fairly  good  orna- 
ment. Figs.  49,  53,  54,  118,  and  119.  Conventional  is  also  used 
in  opposition  to  realistic  ornament. 

Counterchange,  a  pattern  in  which  the  ornament  and  ground  are  mostly 
similar  in  shape  but  different  in  colour  and  alternate  with  each  other. 
See  Figs.  171  and  172. 

Cymatium,  the  capping  to  a  vertical  member,  as  the  cymatium  of  the 
abacus  of  the  Roman  Doric,  of  the  architrave,  of  the  frieze,  of  the 
corona.  See  Appendix  on  the  orders. 

Diaper,  derived  from  jasper,  originally  employed  to  designate  those 
coloured  patterns  on  stuffs  that  suggested  the  flowerings  of  jasper  ; 
subsequently  a  pattern  enclosed  in  repeating  geometrical  forms  not 
composed  of  straight  lines  ;  but  unhappily  employed  of  late  years  to 
designate  any  repeating  patterns  enclosed  in  geometric  forms,  in- 
cluding checkers  and  net-work.  Figs.  101,  107,  109,  and  no. 

Emblem,  in  Latin,  means  embossed  ornament  on  vessels,  inlaid  work, 
and  mosaic.  In  modern  English  it  is  a  device,  and  was  the  animal 
or  thing  that  was  painted  on  a  shield  to  show  the  temper  or  striking 
quality  or  achievement  of  the  warrior.  It  is  also  used  as  an 
allegorical  representation  of  some  virtue  or  quality.  We  say  the 
cock  is  an  emblem  of  watchfulness  ;  the  lion,  of  courage  ;  the  scales, 
of  justice  ;  the  lily,  of  purity ;  but  the  latter  may  be  used  as  a 
symbol  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

Equilibrium.     See  Balance.     Also  Figs.  130  and  160. 

Enlargement  of  Subject,  e.  g.  the  figure  of  Bacchus  is  wanted  for  a 
given  space  which  it  does  not  fill  ;  the  due  filling  of  the  space  may 
sometimes  be  attained  by  the  addition  of  his  attributes,  as  a  leopard, 
a  thyrsus,  a  vine  and  grapes  ;  accessories  even  may  be  wanted,  as  a 
satyr,  maenad,  rocks,  trees,  &c. 

Eurythmy,  harmony  or  elegance  in  ornament ;  a  quality  obtained  by 
the  use  of  contrasted  but  harmonious  and  dignified  forms,  expressed 
in  a  measured  or  proportionate  quantity. 

Even  distribution,  the  plain  space  and  ornament  proportionately 
arranged  ;  Indian  ornament  gives  the  most  mechanical  instance  of 
this,  while  good  Roman  and  Cinque  Cento  pilaster  panels  give  the 
most  artistic  examples  of  this  arrangement.  It  is  sometimes  im- 
properly used  to  designate  the  balancing  of  masses  in  a  design. 
Figs.  101,  102,  143,  &c. 

Expression,  the  method  of  representing  ornament  by  various  means,  as 
in  outline  by  the  pencil,  pen,  or  point ;  in  painting,  by  the  brush  ; 


202  GLOSSARY 

and  in  relief  or  sunk  work  by  modelling.  In  another  sense 
expression  is  giving  the  proper  treatment  and  character  to  ornament, 

Fanciful,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to  grotesque  creations,  for  example, 
to  the  hybrid  animals,  and  the  figures  ending  in  foliage,  met  with 
in  Pompeian  and  other  decorations.  Figs.  122,  131,  134,  and  135. 

Fitness,  absolute  propriety  ;  beautiful  ornament  adapted  to  its  purpose 
and  not  interfering  with  the  use  of  the  object  ornamented.  See 
page  48. 

Flexibility,  a  quality  derived  from  the  appearance  of  plants  of  free 
growth ;  the  freedom  and  elasticity  found  in  natural  forms  when 
converted  into  ornament  give  a  look  of  flexibility,  in  opposition  to 
rigid  and  angular  lines  which  produce  a  look  of  inflexibility.  See 
Fig.  54- 

Fluted,  channelled  in  hollows,  semi-circular,  segmental,  or  elliptical  in 
section ;  like  those  on  some  of  the  shafts  of  Greek  and  Roman 
columns.  See  also  Figs.  75  and  76. 

Geometric,  or  "geometrical  arrangement,"  the  setting  out  of  all  good 
ornament ;  also  the  bounding  lines  for  ornament  constructed  on  a 
basis  of  geometry,  as  in  diapers,  &c. ;  the  triangle,  square,  lozenge, 
diamond,  the  circle,  the  hexagon,  octagon,  and  other  polygons,  are 
the  chief  geometrical  forms  for  patterns  in  ornament.  Saracenic 
decorations  are  pre-eminently  geometric  in  construction.  See  Figs. 
ioi.  102,  1 06,  107,  no,  and  172. 

Grotesque,  from  the  word  grot  or  grotto.  When  the  fantastic  arabesques 
of  ancient  Roman  decoration  were  discovered  under  the  baths  and 
in  grottoes,  they  were  originally  called  grotesque,  and  were  imitated 
in  the  Vatican.  (See  Figs.  122  and  128.)  The  word  is  mainly  used 
now  to  describe  the  coarse  and  humorous  carvings  of  heads,  satyrs, 
&c. ,  originally  used  to  decorate  the  built  grottoes  of  the  late 
Renaissance,  which  gradually  overspread  all  buildings.  The  word  is 
also  used  to  denote  the  quaint  class  of  Gothic  sculptured  creations 
(Fig.  131),  such  as  winged  dragons,  grinning  monsters,  &c.,  that 
serve  to  decorate  the  ends  of  dripstone  mouldings;  gargoyles,  bosses, 
and  finials,  &c. 

Growth  is  a  concise  expression  for  those  forms  which  denote  the  special 
vigour  shown  by  plants  at  certain  epochs  of  their  growth,  the  twist 
of  the  stem  of  creeping  plants  to  get  light  to  the  flowers,  the  burst- 
ing of  the  bud  from  a  capsule,  or  the  clasp  of  a  tendril.  Examples 
are  to  be  met  with  in  the  volutes  of  Greek  Corinthian  capitals,  in 
the  base  of  the  tripod  on  the  choragic  monument  of  Lysikrates,  in 
Renaissance  sculpture,  and  in  early  Gothic. 

Guilloche,  snare-work  ;  an  ornament  composed  of  parallel  curved  lines 
flowing  and  crossing  each  other ;  these  forms  may  best  be  illustrated 


GLOSSARY  203 

by  the  bending  of  ropes  round  circular  pins  so  as  to  cross  one 
another.  See  Figs.  37,  38,  39,  and  40. 

Hieroglyphic^  sacred  carving,  mostly  applied  to  Egyptian  picture  and 
symbolic  writing.  See  Fig.  162. 

Idealistic  used  by  some  writers  as  equivalent  to  conventional,  in  opposi- 
tion to  "  realistic." 

Imbrication,  overlapping  scale-like  ornaments  ;  as  seen  in  fir-cones, 
the  hop,  and  curved  tiles  on  roofs,  are  examples  of  imbrication. 
The  bark  of  the  Chili  pine  is  a  peculiar  instance  of  horizontal  im- 
brication which  is  something  like  that  of  a  Roman  roof.  It  is  used 
as  decoration  on  roofs,  torus  mouldings,  and  small  columns,  and  is 
a  common  way  of  filling  certain  spaces  on  Italian  majolica.  See 
Fig.  26,  A,  B,  C. 

Inappropriate  ornament,  that  which  is  improperly  applied,  so  as  to  spoil 
the  appearance,  or  interfere  with  the  use  of  an  object ;  is  false,  out 
of  scale,  or  redundant.  See  page  21. 

Independent  ornaments.  Things  that  are  beautiful,  quaint,  or  curious, 
that  may  be  attached  to  a  wall  or  surface,  as  festoons,  shields,  me- 
dallions, trophies,  &c.  See  page  21,  also  Fig.  133. 

Interchange  is  when  running  vertical  or  horizontal  patterns  are  divided 
by  a  vertical  or  horizontal  axis,  the  colour  of  the  ground  on  either 
side  of  it  being  different,  the  ornament  on  each  side  of  the  axis 
being  of  the  colour  of  the  opposite  ground.  See  Figs.  173,  174. 

Interlacing,  ornament  composed  of  bands,  ribbons,  ropes,  rushes, 
osiers,  &c.,  woven  together,  or  crossing  at  intervals,  as  seen  in 
Celtic,  Byzantine,  and  Saracenic  ornament ;  among  examples  of 
interlaced  work  may  be  mentioned  braided,  trellis,  basket,  and 
woven  work.  Figs.  22,  23. 

Intersection,  the  points  at  which  lines  or  other  forms  cut  one  another. 

Monotony,  sameness  of  tone  ;  often  shown  in  excessive  repetition ;  a 
very  undesirable  feature  in  ornament :  patterns  within  diapers  with- 
out contrasting  elements  ;  mouldings  coming  together  whose  widths 
and  profiles  are  nearly  equal  ;  panelling  without  sufficient  variety  in 
size ;  carved  ornament  of  nearly  equal  relief — in  short,  any  lack  of 
variety  in  the  composition,  modelling,  or  colour  of  ornament 
produces  monotony. 

Mnemonic,  ornament  in  which  written  signs  or  other  elements  are  used 
for  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  memory.  Seepage  130.  Figs.  162,  163. 

Naturalistic,  those  forms  that  are  used  for  decoration,  that  resemble 
the  spots  and  eyes  on  butterflies'  wings,  or  the  markings  on  the 
skins  of  reptiles  and  quadrupeds,  or  on  the  feathers  of  birds  ;  mostly 
found  in  the  ornament  of  savage  tribes. 


204  GLOSSARY 

Network,  as  opposed  to  checkers,  are  squares  set  lozengewise  or  form- 
ing diamonds  ;  but  the  word  is  commonly  applied  to  any  figures  in 
outline,  rectilinear  or  otherwise,  covering  a  surface.  See  Fig.  102. 

Order,  regular  disposition  ;  a  pleasing  sequence  in  the  arrangement  of 
opposed  forms.  Order  is  of  such  vital  importance  in  a  design  that 
ornament  can  scarcely  have  any  existence  without  it. 

Powdering,  sprays,  flowers,  leaves,  and  other  decorative  units  sprinkled 
on  a  ground;  "powdering"  is  a  favourite  method  of  decoration 
with  the  Japanese,  and  was  with  the  Medisevals.  See  pp.  63,  80, 
and  83,  and  Figs.  85,  103,  and  105. 

Proportion,  the  harmonic  spacing  of  lines  and  surfaces  ;  of  the  length, 
width,  and  projection  of  solids  ;  the  ratio  between  succeeding  units 
in  flowing  ornament,  and  the  relation  between  the  spaces  occupied 
by  the  ornament  and  its  ground. 

Radiation,  the  divergence  from  a  point  of  straight  or  curved  lines. 
Radiating  ornament  is  improved  by  the  point  being  below  the  straight 
or  curved  line  from  which  the  radiation  starts.  Explained  at  page 
44.  See  Figs.  49,  50,  and  51. 

Realistic,  a  style  of  decoration  in  which  forms  are  applied  without 
alteration  from  natural  forms  or  objects,  or  without  apparent  altera- 
tion ;  it  is  opposed  to  the  "  conventional,"  and  is  rarely  found  in 
the  best  periods  of  good  historic  styles.  See  Figs.  I  and  146. 

Repetition,  a  succession  of  the  same  decorative  unit.  For  explanation 
see  pages  40 — 43,  and  Figs.  3,  9,  and  32. 

Reeded,  convex  forms  applied  to  a  flat  or  curved  surface,  producing  the 
reverse  effect  of  "fluting"  ;  some  of  the  columns  in  Egyptian  archi- 
tecture are  reeded,  being  sculptured  to  represent  a  bundle  of  reeds 
tied  together.  See  Figs.  76A  and  763. 

Repose,  rest ;  the  absence  of  apparent  movement  in  ornament ;  this 
apparent  movement  may  be  seen  in  some  flamboyant  tracery  and 
Saracenic  work,  and  in  some  bad  paper-hangings,  &c.  ;  also  the 
absence  of  spottiness.  See  page  45. 

Scale,  the  relative  proportion  of  the  different  parts  of  a  decorative  com- 
position to  each  other,  to  the  whole,  and  to  the  thing  ornamented. 
If  a  design  is  composed  of  different  organic  forms,  they  should,  as  a 
rule,  keep  their  natural  proportion  to  each  other.  Attributes  are, 
however,  often  made  to  a  much  larger  scale  in  Greek  coins  and 
engraved  gems.  Equality  in  scale  need  not  be  used  when  parts  are 
cut  off  from  each  other  by  inclosing  mouldings,  as  in  isolated  panels, 
pilasters,  medallions,  spandrels,  &c.;  the  inclosed  spaces  may  be 
filled  with  other  subjects  of  smaller  or  larger  scale,  as  with  land- 
scapes, heads,  or  inscriptions  ;  the  frieze  of  a  room,  from  its  greater 
importance,  may  have  its  decoration  larger  in  scale  than  the  panels 


GLOSSARY  205 

of  the  door  or  shutters.  The  scale  employed  in  the  decoration  of 
rooms,  of  floors,  or  of  pieces  of  furniture,  may  increase  or  destroy 
their  importance  ;  hence,  except  in  rare  instances,  the  human  figure 
should  not  exceed  its  natural  size,  and  may  want  to  be  much  smaller. 
And  this  precaution  is  equally  important  in  the  use  of  plants  ;  if  the 
flowers  or  leaves  in  ornament  are  made  gigantic,  they  destroy  the 
scale  of  the  room  or  floor  ;  though  it  may  be  known  that  leaves  four 
feet  in  diameter  or  six  feet  long  actually  exist. 

Scalloping  or  scolloping,  forming  an  edge  with  semi- circles  or  segments, 
the  convex  side  being  outwards. 

Scroll^  a  roll  of  paper  or  parchment.  As  a  unit  in  ornament,  it  is 
usually  applied  to  two  spirals,  each  attached  to  the  opposite  ends  of 
a  curved  stem,  each  spiral  coiling  the  reverse  way,  but  the  word  is 
often  applied  to  ornament  composed  of  a  meander  with  spirals. 

Series,  usually  the  sequence  of  several  dissimilar  forms  at  regular 
intervals,  as  the  bead  and  reel  in  bead-mouldings,  the  sequence  of 
the  same  text  in  Saracenic  work,  and  also  a  sequence  of  forms  similar 
in  shape  but  in  an  increasing  or  decreasing  order,  as  branches  of 
plants,  with  leaves  getting  smaller  from  bottom  to  top. 

Setting  out,  the  planning  of  a  scheme  of  decoration  ;  the  first  construct- 
ive lines  or  marking-out  of  the  ornament ;  the  skeleton  lines  of  a 
design.  See  pages  26,  40,  and  68. 

Soffit,  an  architectural  term  applied  to  the  under  side  of  any  fixed 
portion,  as  the  soffit  of  a  beam,  an  architrave,  a  cornice,  an  arch,  or 
a  vault. 

Spacing,  the  marking  of  widths  in  mouldings,  panels,  stiles  and  rails, 
borders,  &c.  Equality  of  division  in  decoration  is,  in  most  cases, 
ineffective,  and  should  be  guarded  against ;  harmonious  variety  in 
such  widths  and  distances  is  desirable  for  getting  a  good  effect.  See 
pages  42,  62,  65,  and  68 — 71.  Also  Figs.  C,  D,  88  and  89. 

Spiral,  the  elevation  of  a  wire  continuously  twisted  round  a  cylinder, 
or  cone,  also  the  plan  of  one  twisted  round  a  cone  ;  in  ornament  the 
word  spiral,  when  used  as  a  substantive,  mostly  means  the  latter 
form.  The  curved  line  forming  a  volute  (as  in  the  Ionic  capital) 
and  the  outline  of  the  wave  ornament ;  the  line  of  construction  in 
univalve  shells.  See  Figs.  24,  41,  42,  43,  178,  &c. 

Stability,  firmness  and  strength  in  the  general  appearance  of  a  design ; 
in  climbing  plants  this  appearance  can  only  be  given  by  their  attach- 
ment to  a  central  upright  or  to  the  vertical  sides  of  the  frame  ;  the 
straight  line  is  the  chief  factor  of  stability  in  ornament.  See  page 
42.  Where  many  curved  lines  are  used  in  the  decoration  of  long 
panels,  straight-lined  forms  must  be  introduced  to  counteract  the 
effect  of  instability  in  the  curved  ones.  See  Figs.  123  and  128. 


2o6  GLOSSARY 

This  is  especially  the  case  in  pilasters  which  are  architectural  features 
of  support ;  and  for  the  same  reason  the  heavier  forms  should  be 
kept  at  the  bottom  and  the  lighter  ones  at  the  top. 
Style  originally  meant  handwriting.  In  historic  styles  it  means  the 
expression  of  the  taste  and  skill  of  the  people  who  produced  the 
work  of  art,  whether  it  be  architecture,  sculpture,  or  painting. 
Bygone  styles  are  useful  for  study,  and  may  be  copied  or  para- 
phrased, but  can  never  be  re-created,  because  the  genius,  knowledge, 
opportunities,  and  surroundings  of  any  later  period  are  unlikely  to 
be  the  same.  We  classify  them  under  the  head  of  conventional 
(sometimes  called  idealistic),  realistic,  and  naturalistic.  It  is  also 
used  to  express  good  drawing  or  modelling,  which  conveys  the 
elegance,  grace,  or  vigour  of  the  best  natural  forms.  Sometimes  it 
is  applied  to  a  composition  in  which  those  qualities  are  expressed, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  ill-drawn,  flabby,  or  commonplace. 

Spotting.  This  word  has  nearly  the  same  meaning  as  "  powdering,"  the 
only  difference  being  that  the  units  of  form  in  such  decoration  have 
a  geometrical  basis  and  are  mostly  equidistant,  the  ground  occupying 
much  larger  space  than  the  ornament.  See  Fig.  80. 

Stripe^  usually  applied  in  ornament  to  narrow  bands. 

Suitability,  aesthetic  and  practical  fitness  ;  the  great  thing  to  remember 
is  the  nature,  surface,  and  shape  of  the  object  to  be  decorated,  and 
to  design  the  ornament  accordingly,  for  it  is  evident  that  what 
would  be  a  good  ornament  for  one  object  or  position  might  be  bad 
for  another. 

Superimposed  or  superposed^  an  ornament  which  is  laid  on  the  surface  of 
another,  such  as  a  large  flowing  pattern  on  a  ground  covered  with  a 
smaller  pattern,  either  geometric  or  floral ;  or  a  broad,  ribbon-like 
ornament  laid  on  a  pattern  formed  of  narrow  and  fine  lines.  This 
sort  of  ornamentation  is  mostly  seen  in  the  decoration  of  the 
Saracens,  but  occasionally  in  that  of  the  Renaissance  artists.  In  the 
wall-patterns  of  the  Alhambra,  we  often  find  two,  three,  and  some- 
times four  different  designs  superimposed  on  each  other,  the  judicious 
use  of  different  colours  and  gold  preventing  confusion  in  the  pattern  ; 
the  complexity  is  sometimes  of  a  well-ordered  kind.  See  Figs.  101, 
102,  and  104. 

Subordination.  A  regular  gradation  from  the  most  important  feature 
to  the  least  important.  See  the  central  panel  of  ceiling,  Fig.  89. 

Symbol  originally  meant  a  token  or  a  ticket  among  the  Greeks ;  by 
the  Romans  it  meant  the  same,  and  also  a  signet.  In  modern 
English  it  means  a  sign,  emblem,  or  figurative  representation.  In 
ornamental  art  it  is  mostly  used  to  express  some  beautiful  thing  that 
by  knowledge  or  association  brings  to  the  mind  some  power  or 


GLOSSARY  207 

dignity  connected  with  religion.  Attributes  are  often  used  as 
symbols  of  the  divinity  to  which  they  belong — the  bow  of  Diana, 
the  thyrsus  of  Bacchus  (Fig.  167),  and  the  trident  of  Neptune,  &c. 
In  Christian  ornament  the  fish  and  lamb  are  mostly  symbols  of  the 
Saviour.  It  is  sometimes  difficult  to  determine  when  anything 
should  be  called  a  symbol,  an  emblem,  or  an  allegorical  represent- 
ation ;  for  instance,  whether  the  Apocalyptic  calf  is  a  symbol,  an 
emblem,  or  an  allegorical  representation  of  St.  Luke. 

Symmetry,  equality  of  form  and  mass  on  either  side  of  a  central  line ; 
absolute  sameness  in  the  two  sides  of  a  piece  of  ornament.  See 
Figs.  127  and  130. 

Tangential  Junction,  the  meeting  of  curves  at  their  tangential  points, 
so  that  they  flow  into  one  another  without  making  an  angle.  The 
principal  constructive  lines  in  foliated  ornament  and  scroll  patterns 
should  illustrate  "  tangential  junction,"  i.  e.  the  branches  and  curves 
should  flow  out  of  the  central  stem.  See  p.  45,  and  Figs.  25  and 
53- 

Uniformity,  being  of  one  shape ;  the  square  and  circle  are  uniform 
figures  ;  -it  is  one  of  the  main  causes  of  grandeur  and  dignity,  but  if 
absolute,  results  in  monotony.  The  Greek  temples  had  apparently 
uniform  columns  placed  at  uniform  distances,  and  monotony  was 
avoided  by  delicate  variations  in  the  size  and  spacing  of  the 
columns. 

Unit,  the  smallest  or  simplest  complete  expression  of  ornament  in  any 

scheme  of  decoration. 
Unity,  perfect  accord  in  all  the  parts  of  a  design.     Unity  is  often  a 

characteristic  of  designs  that  are  very  monotonous,  so  by  itself  it 

will  scarcely  render  a  design  pleasing. 
Un symmetrical,  without  symmetry,  such  as  the  volute.     See  the  word 

Balance. 
Variety,  the  absence  of  similarity ;   a  word  embracing  an  infinity  of 

differences,  from  two  things  that  are  not  absolutely  alike,  to  two 

things  that  are  absolutely  unlike.     The  judicious  use   of  variety 

gives  interest  to  ornament,  but  uniformity  with  slight  variety  gives 

the  most  dignity. 


RICHARD  CLAY  &  SONS,  LIMITED, 
LONDON  &  BUNGAY. 


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